LIBRA    • 
University  ( 
California 
Irvine 


RIVERSIDE   TEXTBOOKS 
IN   EDUCATION 

EDITED   BY  ELLWOOD   P.  CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR   OF    EDUCATION 
LELAND    STANFORD   JUNIOR    UNIVERSITY 


DIVISION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

UNDER  THE  EDITORIAL  DIRECTION 

OF  ALEXANDER  INGLIS 

ASSISTANT     PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION 
HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


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A  HANDBOOK  FOR 
RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 


BY 


.  SHOWALTER 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 
CHENEY,  WASHINGTON 


HOUGHTON   MTFFLIN   COMPANY 

BOSTON          NEW   YORK          CHICAGO 

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COPYRIGHT,    1920,   BY   N.    D.    SHOWALTER 
ALL    RIGHTS    KESEKVED 


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EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

THE  district  form  of  school  organization  and  control  goes 
back  to  the  beginnings  of  education  at  public  expense  in 
America,  and,  despite  the  many  recent  changes  which  have 
tended  to  evolve  a  larger  unit  for  rural  school  administra- 
tion, it  still  remains  to-day  the  most  commonly  used  form 
found  in  our  American  States.  There  are  in  the  United 
States  at  present  approximately  215,000  one-room  rural 
schools  under  the  district  form  of  organization  and  control, 
and  for  these  approximately  250,000  citizens  are  called 
upon  to  serve  each  year  as  school  trustees.  In  addition, 
other  trustees  are  required  to  direct  the  organization  of  the 
two-room  and  three-room  and  four-room  village  schools 
found  in  many  places  in  our  land.  Though  the  smallest 
administrative  unit  under  our  political  system  to  which  any 
large  powers  are  entrusted,  the  school  trustees,  or  school 
directors  as  they  are  called  in  some  of  our  States,  neverthe- 
less exercise  very  important  functions  under  our  laws.  Each 
little  school  district  has  been  created  by  law  a  body  corpo- 
rate and  politic,  and  has  the  powers  of  a  public  corporation 
under  the  laws  of  the  State.  To  the  board  of  school  trustees 
certain  important  legal  powers  have  been  given.  These 
include  the  right  to  enter  into  contracts,  to  act  in  the  name 
of  the  district,  to  sue  and  be  sued,  to  purchase  and  hold  title 
to  property  necessary  for  school  purposes,  and  to  employ 
teachers  and  supervise  a  school. 

For  the  teacher  in  such  a  school  much  has  been  written, 
especially  in  recent  years,  and  teachers'  institutes  have  for 
long  been  provided  with  a  view  to  instructing  teachers  better 
as  to  their  work.  For  the  school  trustee  little  or  nothing  of 


vl  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

a  helpful  nature  has  so  far  appeared,  and  only  in  very  recent 
years  have  trustees'  institutes  begun  to  be  held  with  a  view 
to  instructing  trustees  as  to  the  proper  handling  of  their  im- 
portant duties.  The  need  for  some  simple  book  that  would 
serve  to  help  trustees  to  understand  their  work  has  recently 
come  to  be  felt,  and  the  present  Handbook  is  an  attempt  to 
minister  to  this  new  need.  The  author  of  the  volume,  a 
former  county  superintendent  of  schools,  and  for  many  years 
past  president  of  a  State  normal  school  that  has  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  the  movement  in  his  State  to  improve 
rural  school  conditions,  is  familiar  with  the  many  efforts 
which  have  been  attempted  with  a  view  to  improving  the 
rural  school.  The  Handbook  which  he  has  prepared,  and 
which  is  now  offered  to  the  public,  ought  to  prove  of  large 
usefulness  to  school  trustees  and  school  directors  in  helping 
them  to  a  more  intelligent  understanding  of  the  important 
work  which  they  have  been  called  upon  to  perform. 

ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

THIS  is  intended  as  a  handbook  for  rural  school  trustees,  and 
has  for  its  purpose  the  stimulation  of  these  officers  in  their 
interest  in  education  to  the  extent  that  they  will  put  forth 
the  greatest  personal  effort  to  accomplish  the  most  possible 
for  their  respective  districts.  It  is  intended  that  all  infor- 
mation given  herein  shall  be  authentic,  and  that  all  sugges- 
tions shall  be  based  upon  the  best  methods  and  practices 
now  used  in  administering  the  common  schools  of  our  coun- 
try. The  volume  is  a  result  of  personal  investigation  of 
plans  and  practices  now  in  use  in  the  best  rural  communities 
of  the  United  States. 

Our  educational  system  has  grown  out  of  the  rural  unit 
organized  during  our  early  history.  At  its  very  beginning, 
it  was  vital  to  our  stability  as  a  free  government,  it  has  per- 
sisted to  the  present,  and  its  improvement  as  a  national  in- 
stitution is  now  of  great  public  importance.  "Each  rural 
community  has  in  it  the  vital  elements  necessary  to  a  great 
America,  and  the  public  school  must  become  the  coordi- 
nating organization  necessary  to  fuse  these  elements  into  a 
living  force.  The  better  the  school  the  more  vitalized  the 
community  must  be.  The  greater  the  development  pro- 
vided for  each  individual,  the  more  important  and  the  more 
powerful  our  Nation  will  surely  become.  May  each  school 
officer  recognize  the  fact  that.lie  holds  the  keys  to  American 
progress,  which  can  only  become  the  sum  total  of  the  com- 
bined thinking  of  all  of  the  people. 

It  is  not  intended  that  this  volume  should  represent  some 
original  plan  for  school  organization  and  administration, 
worked  out  whol'y  differently  from  that  now  found  in  our 


viii  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

best  schools.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  purposely  intended 
to  point  out  the  proven  way  to  the  best  success  through  the 
means  which  have  been  tried  in  actual  practice.  The  author 
has  called  upon  many  teachers  and  educators  for  sugges- 
tions, many  of  which  have  been  freely  used  with  the  hope  of 
making  the  contents  of  greatest  practical  value. 

The  author  especially  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  help 
which  came  directly  from  the  members  of  his  own  faculty, 
who  either  offered  suggestions  which  have  been  freely  used 
or  gave  assistance  in  preparing  one  or  more  of  the  chapters. 
In  this  connection  the  following  names  should  specifically 
be  mentioned:  F.  E.  Barr,  George  E.  Craig,  Alma  A.  Dobbs, 
Mary  Ensfield,  Josephine  FitzGerald,  George  W.  Frasier, 
Frances  Johnston,  Curtis  Merriman,  Bertha  Most,  and 
George  H.  Yost. 

I  also  wish  to  make  especial  acknowledgment  of  the  help 
received  from  Mr.  Earl  W.  Morrison,  a  school  architect  with 
offices  in  Spokane,  Washington,  for  his  assistance  in  pre- 
paring the  plans  and  drawings  for  most  of  the  type-schools 
given  in  this  volume. 

N.  D.  SHOWALTEH 

CHENEY,  WASHINGTON 

January,  1920 


CONTENTS 

r 

EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION v 

AUTHOR'S  PREFACE vii 

A  FOREWORD xvii 

CHAPTER  I.  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  AS  A  NATIONAL  ASSET  .       .       1 

Government  inventory  of  education  —  Evidence  of  education 
worth  —  Parents'  recognition  of  the  organized  school  —  Nation's 
use  of  the  school  —  Free  government  depends  upon  intelligent 
citizenship  —  Civic  responsibilities  —  Faith  in  education  —  The 
school,  "The  Birthright  of  the  Children"  — School  purpose  at 
its  beginning  —  Change  in  requirements  —  Education  explained 

—  Larger  responsibilities  to  the  school  —  Need  for  larger  subsi- 
dies. 

CHAPTER  II.  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION         ...      8 

Schools  administered  by  States  —  Beginning  National  subsidies 

—  Effect  of  subsidies  on  the  older  States  —  War  and  education 

—  National    responsibilities  —  Tendency    toward    non-political 
boards  —  State  boards   as   unifying  element  —  State  executive 
officer  —  County,    "the    unit    of    administration" — District 

•  units  —  Joint  responsibilities  of  home  and  school. 

CHAPTER   III.    THE     SCHOOL     ELECTION     AND     CHOOSING 
SCHOOL  OFFICERS 18 

Requirements  for  good  citizenship  —  Responsibilities  in  repre- 
sentative government  —  Means  of  political  expression  —  How  to 
determine  National  standards  —  The  school  in  association  with 
government  —  Facts  disclosed  in  school-election  records  —  Dif- 
ficulty in  securing  qualified  officers  —  Suggested  remedies. 

CHAPTER  IV.  WORK  OF  THE  ORGANIZED  SCHOOL  BOARD  .       .     25 

Requirements  of  school  officers  —  Some  common  mistakes  — 
Good  organization  and  good  records  —  Importance  of  board  work- 
ing as  a  unit  —  Need  for  a  trustee's  policy  for  use  of  buildings 

—  Inspection  of  school  premises  —  School  spirit  and  leadership. 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  V.  RESOURCES  AND  FINANCES       .      .      .      .      .35 

Financing  as  adopted  by  different  States  —  Large  units  better  for 
financing  —  Local  district  tax  —  How  buildings  and  equipment 
are  provided  —  Bonds  necessary  to  financing  —  The  annual 
budget  system  —  Vouchers  plan  of  payment  —  Keeping  public 
records. 

CHAPTER  VI.  THE  SCHOOL  SITE 43 

Choosing  new  site  or  improving  the  old  —  The  relation  of  building 
site  to  the  school  —  Attractive  school  grounds  —  Size  of  school 
site  —  Influence  of  surroundings  upon  children  —  Advantage  of 
"Arbor  Day"  —  Impressive  surroundings. 

CHAPTER  VII.  THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 50 

Buildings  composing  school  plant  —  Trees  and  shrubbery  in  the 
plan  —  Secure  landscape  gardener  —  The  "  Teacherage  "  or  school 
cottage  —  Advantage  in  securing  trained  teachers  —  Need  for 
school  gymnasium  —  Suggestions  for  buildings  —  Size  of  school 
buildings  —  Details  for  buildings  —  Proper  lighting  —  Provi- 
sions for  constructions  —  The  color  scheme  —  Relationship  be- 
tween physical  and  mental  child  —  Pure  air  and  proper  ven- 
tilation —  Installation  of  toilets  —  Water-pressure  system  — 
Drinking-fountains  and  lavatories  —  Water  for  fire  protection 
and  irrigation. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  FURNITURE  AND  APPARATUS       ....    75 

Schoolroom  atmosphere  —  School  comforts  and  their  attractions 
—  School  furnishings  essential  —  Furnishings  desirable  —  The 
school  kitchenette  —  Essential  apparatus  —  Desirable  appara- 
tus —  Special  apparatus  — Playground  apparatus — Good  house- 
keeping in  the  schoolroom  —  Local  firms  most  reliable. 

CHAPTER  IX.  SCHOOLROOM  DECORATIONS 85 

^Esthetic  tastes  developed  in  all  children  —  Furniture  and  its 
harmonious  effect  —  Worth  of  beautiful  surroundings  —  Handi- 
cap in  artistic  progress  —  Influence  ef  decorations  —  Interior  ar- 
rangement by  teacher  and  pupils —  Properly  kept  blackboards  — 
Value  of  posters,  programs,  notices  —  Pictures  for  decoration  — 
Life-story  of  picture  necessary  —  Good  framing  an  advantage  — 
Pottery  and  the  use  of  vases  —  Relationship  of  the  beautiful  and 
the  good. 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  X.  SELECTING  THE  TEACHER          94 

The  teacher's  influence  —  Special  training  necessary  —  Normal 
school  as  training  center  —  Higher  requirements  in  school  —  How 
to  secure  good  teachers  —  Proper  procedure  of  investigation  — 
General  recommendations  of  little  value  —  Standardizations  nec- 
essary —  Reception  of  teacher  —  Worth  of  cooperation. 

CHAPTER  XI.  SPECIAL  OFFICIAL  DUTIES 103 

Minimum  time,  maximum  efficiency  —  Yearly  school  calendar  — 
Bids  and  contracts  —  Rules  and  regulations  governing  official 
acts  —  Opening  of  school  —  Rights  of  petition  —  Care  of  defec- 
tive youth  —  The  lawful  contract  —  Keeping  of  register  —  Offi- 
cial forms. 

CHAPTER  XII.  THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 109 

Need  for  definite  schedule  —  A  workable  program  for  each  day 

—  Important  factors  considered  in  program  —  Correct  classifi- 
cations —  Length  of  school  year  a  factor  —  Adjustments  of  pro- 
gram often  necessary —  Combination  of  class  work  —  Alternating 
subjects  —  Substitution  of  subject-matter  —  Direction  of  seat 
work. 

CHAPTER  XIII.  THE  HOME  AND  SCHOOL  IN  COOPERATION     .  119 

Alliance  of  home  and  school  —  Transition  from  home  to  school  — 
Personal  association  necessary  —  The  teacher  a  social  leader  — 
A  new  point  of  view  evolved  —  Parent-teacher  movement  —  Aim 
and  purpose  of  mothers'  organization  —  The  schoolhouse  a  meet- 
ing-place —  Recommendations  for  organizations  —  Varied  pro- 
grams. 

CHAPTER  XIV.  RURAL  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION       .      .       .      .127 

Attention  given  to  rural  education  —  Administration  and  super- 
vision different  —  Supervision  in  city  systems  —  Disadvantages 
of  small  unit  —  Impossibility  exj>ected  —  Local  welfare  versus 
national  interest  —  Two  plans  suggested  —  Good  roads  an  ele- 
ment —  Grange  and  other  farm  organizations  investigate  plans 

—  School  plants  greatly  changed. 

CHAPTER  XV.  CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS   .       .       .  134 

How  education  has  evolved  —  Now  considered  universal  need  — 
Increased  interests — Unquestionable  support  —  A  progressive 
community  —  Careful  consideration  necessary  —  Limitations  of 


xii  CONTENTS 

one-room  school  —  Important  items  considered  —  How  to  reach 
a  decision  —  Means  for  transporting  pupils. 

CHAPTER  XVI.  REDIRECTED  EDUCATION 147 

Complaints  lodged  against  school  —  Investigation  an  outgrowth 

—  Changes  in  plans  and  policies  —  Child's  development  of  first 
importance  —  Coordination  of  study  and  work  —  Personal  adap- 
tation —  Combining  facts  and  interest  — The  child's  social  needs 

—  Relation  of  school  to  community  work  —  The  church  an  im- 
portant agency  —  The  fully  developed  individual  —  What  educa- 
tion must  include. 

CHAPTER  XVII.  PRACTICAL  EDUCATION 154 

Early  education  defined  — •  Individual  differences  —  Applied  prin- 
ciples made  practical  —  The  type  and  character  of  work  —  Com- 
bination courses  for  grades  —  Better  understanding  of  surround- 
ings —  The  well-balanced  curriculum  —  Application  of  knowl- 
edge to  immediate  needs  —  Education  and  the  growth  of  nations 

—  Constructive  criticism. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.  MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  HOME  ECONOMICS  1C1 

Results  from  study  —  Development  necessarily  varied  —  Aim  ->i 
manual  arts  teaching  —  Personal  characteristics  developed  — ' 
Manual  arts,  as  vitalizing  element  —  The  keynote  of  the  subject 

—  How  determine  usefulness  —  Organization  and  division  of  work 

—  What  to  include  —  Work  outline  for  girls. 

CHAPTER  XIX.  THE  HOT  LUNCH  AND  ITS  VALUE      .      .       .169 

General  approval  given  to  plan  —  Lunch-basket  a  necessity  — 
Effect  of  hurried  eating  —  How  to  make  a  beginning  —  A 
mother's  appreciation  —  Opportunity  it  affords  —  Interest  stim- 
ulated in  children  —  Noon  lunch  common  meeting-ground  — 

Meaning  of  efficiency  —  Home-making  duties. 

• 

CHAPTER  XX.  HEALTH  EDUCATION  AND   MEDICAL  INSPEC- 
TION          176 

Child  welfare  —  Health  supervision  in  schools  —  Program  of 
work  —  Sense-training  essential  —  Health  and  work  —  Home 
study  and  health  —  Precautions  necessary  —  Three  views  for  con- 
sideration —  Examination  may  vary  —  Five  primary  defects  — 
Anaemia  common  among  children  —  "Poor  food"  has  varied 
meanings  —  Sunshine  and  sleep  —  Personal  history  and  family 


CONTENTS  xiii 

record  —  Retardation  caused  by  defects  —  Parents  should  coop- 
erate —  Carriers  of  disease  —  Hygiene  made  practical  —  Spe- 
cialist must  have  tact  —  Habits  valuable  —  Incentives  best  ap- 
peal —  Moral  hygiene  and  conduct. 

CHAPTER  XXI.  CITIZENSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY    .       .       .       .192 

Responsibility  of  individual  —  Ballot-box  means  of  expression  — 
Influence  governing  voting  —  Superiority  of  men  —  Liberty,  its 
application  —  Nation,  how  characterized  —  Contributing  agen- 
cies —  Government  individualistic  —  Equality  of  men  —  Edu- 
cation of  fundamental  —  Program  of  education  —  Ideals  needed. 

APPENDICES 

LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  FURTHER  READING 201 

SCORE  CARD  TO  BE  USED  IN  MEASURING  SCHOOL  SUCCESS  202 
GENERAL  RATING-SHEET  FOR  STANDARD  RURAL  SCHOOLS  .  203 
STANDARD  RATING-SHEET  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS  .  .  .  207 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COUNTY  TRUSTEES'  MEETINGS  OR  FOR 
COMMUNITY  MEETINGS 209 

INDEX  .  .  .  211 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

A  GOOD  ONE-TEACHER  RURAL-SCHOOL  PLANT    .      .  Frontispiece 

A  COMMON  TYPE  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  SITE 44 

A  BETTER  TYPE  OF  SCHOOL  SITE 45 

A  SMALL  "  TEACHERAGE  "  AND  A  ONE-ROOM  RURAL  SCHOOL  .    52 

A  Two-RooM  TEACHERS'  COTTAGE 53 

A  THREE-  OR  FIVE-ROOM  TEACHERS'  COTTAGE  ....  54 
A  FOUR-  OR  FIVE-ROOM  TEACHERS'  COTTAGE  ....  55 

A  SIMPLE  OUTDOOR  GYMNASIUM 56 

A  SIMPLE    AND    SATISFACTORY   ONE-ROOM    RURAL-SCHOOL 

BUILDING 58 

ANOTHER  TYPE  OF  ONE-ROOM  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING  .  59 
A  SIMPLE  Two-RooM  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING  ...  60 
A  VERY  DESIRABLE  TYPE  OF  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING  .  .61 

THE  MODEL  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING 63 

AN  INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  A  CLASSROOM 65 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  PLAN  FOR  A  SMALL  SCHOOL  .       .     67 

CROSS-SECTION  OF  THE  VENTILATING  PLAN 69 

PLAN  FOR  A  TOILET  WHERE  RUNNING  WATER  is  NOT  AVAIL- 
ABLE         71 

TYPES  OF  MODERN  CONSOLIDATED  SCHOOLS        ....  140 

USING  THE  OLD  SCHOOL  BUILDING 140 

MAP   SHOWING   SCHOOL  CONSOLIDATION   IN  ONE  INDIANA 

COUNTY 14? 

DIFFERENT  MEANS  FOR  TRANSPORTING  PUPILS   .      .       .       .144 

MANUAL  TRAINING  IN  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 164 

THE  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  AND  SET/ING  ROOM  ....  164 
THE  HOT  NOON  LUNCH  IN  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL  .  .  .  .172 

THE  WRONG  KIND  OF  SCHOOL  TOILET 180 

SIMPLE  HEALTH  INSPECTION 180 

HEALTH  DEFECTS  IN  CITY  AND  COUNTRY   CHILDREN  COM- 
PARED .  187 


A  FOREWORD 

CREED  FOR  THE  SCHOOL  TRUSTEE  OR  THE 
SCHOOL  DIRECTOR 

I  BELIEVE  in  the  directors,  the  devoted  men  of  to-day  and  yes- 
terday ;  that  whatever  they  sow  the  community  will  reap. 

I  BELIEVE  the  director  should  visit  the  school  often,  consult  with 
the  teacher,  advise  with  the  parents,  and  cooperate  with  any 
power  that  will  advance  the  cause  of  education  in  his  school. 

I  BELIEVE  the  teacher  makes  the  school;  that  no  minted  coin  is 
small  enough  to  pay  for  the  services  of  a  poor  one,  and  none  too 
rich  for  the  real  teacher. 

I  BELIEVE  in  the  hopes  and  ideals  of  the  efficient  teacher;  in  her 
sympathy  and  power  for  good;  in  her  enthusiasm  and  good  cheer 
that  leads  her  on. 

I  BELIEVE  in  the  innocence  of  childhood,  in  sunshine,  in  laughter, 
in  the  castles  that  fancy  rears;  in  the  purity  of  child  life,  in  the 
removal  of  temptation;  in  the  suppression  of  vice  and  crime. 

I  BELIEVE  there  is  a  problem  for  every  day  I  live;  that  opportu- 
nity knocks  at  my  door  continually;  that  progress  and  good  citizen- 
ship demand  that  I  stay  at  my  post  of  duty. 

I  BELIEVE  that  ignorance  is  a  tax;  that  the  unskilled  represent 
lost  opportunity;  that  lack  of  training  and  proper  development 
represent  waste. 

I  BELIEVE  that  our  greatest  problem  is  the  proper  training  of  our 
generation;  that  interest  and  dollar  marks  will  not  weigh  in  the 
balance  with  our  ideals  of  worth  and  character;  that  our  hopes  and 
fears  must  still  center  around  the  fountains  of  love  and  laughter. 

I  BELIEVE  in  civic  pride;  in  community  life;  and  in  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  individual;  in  public  opinion;  in  the  open  forum;  in 
the  rule  of  the  people;  and  that  their  voice  is  the  voice  of  God. 
Amen. 

Author 


A  HANDBOOK 
FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  AS  A  NATIONAL  ASSET 

OUR  Government  recently  made  an  inventory  of  all  of  its 
assets.  Public  school  education  was  placed  near  the  top  of 
the  list.  While  this  is  the  first  time  that  definite  recognition 
has  been  given  to  public  school  education  nationally,  the 
people  have  given  evidence  of  its  worth  by  placing  larger  and 
larger  responsibilities  upon  it  with  complete  faith  in  its  abil- 
ity to  respond.  They  have  committed  to  it  their  children, 
knowing  full  well  that  it  would  stamp  upon  their  young 
minds  indelible  impressions  which  would  characterize  them 
through  life.  Parents,  too,  have  recognized  the  organized 
school  as  a  means  of  securing  a  better  understanding  of  the 
Nation's  requirements.  The  Nation  in  turn  has  used  the 
public  school,  because  of  its  vast  organization,  to  send  prop- 
aganda broadcast  to  its  millions  of  people.  -  The  school  has 
shown  itself  to  be  the  open  portal  to  the  home  life.  It  has 
already  been  proved  to  be  the  greatest  influence  in  securing 
the  cooperation  of  community  life  with  that  of  the  Nation's 
needs. 

It  was  clearly  recognized  by  the  founders  of  our  free  Re- 
public that  the  maintenance  of  such  a  government  must  de- 
pend upon  intelligent  citizenship.  If  the  ruling  power  be 
inherent  in  the  people,  then  an  educated  citizenship  is  neces- 
sary to  progress.  "Education"  here  is  used  in  its  broadest 
sense,  meaning  a  clear  comprehension  of  life's  needs  with  an 


2        HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

earnest  desire  to  give  this  in  full  measure  to  all  of  the  people. 
In  order  to  attain  this  end,  each  one  must  be  rounded  out  to 
his  highest  development.  Each  one  must  be  prepared  to 
assume  his  portion  of  responsibility.  If  mistakes  are  made, 
all  must  suffer  the  consequences  alike.  Of  great  importance, 
then,  is  the  thinking  of  each  individual  citizen.  Good  judg- 
ment and  careful  reasoning  are  essential  requisites  of  each 
person.  A  democratic  form  of  government  can  rest  safe 
only  with  a  people  thus  endowed,  and  can  progress  only  to 
the  extent  that  this  conception,  and  the  understanding  of 
its  own  general  welfare,  prevail. 

If  each  person  has  civic  responsibilities,  there  must  be 
some  means  of  determining  just  what  these  are.  Each  one 
must  not  only  know  the  principles  upon  which  our  Govern- 
ment is  based,  but  must  be  given  the  ability  to  help  maintain 
those  principles  and  to  assist  in  carrying  them  to  their  high- 
est development.  This  civic  responsibility  must  be  rein- 
forced by  a  clearer  conception  of  social  relationship  and  of 
moral  obligations.  The  word  "government"  represents  an 
association  of  peoples,  and  the  determining  influences  must 
carry  out  the  idea  of  happiness  and  welfare  for  the  entire 
group.  Social  intercourse  of  the  right  character  means 
racial  development  of  the  highest  order.  Moral  ideals  form 
the  basis  for  both  civic  and  social  improvement.  Upon  this 
rests  the  honor  of  the  Nation.  Conceptions  of  right  and 
wrong,  of  truth  and  honesty,  of  honor  and  virtue,  govern  our 
actions  and  influence  all  of  our  decisions.  In  a  democracy, 
then,  there  must  be  national  conscience  and  national  respon- 
sibility —  all  of  which  turns  back  to  the  people  themselves, 
upon  whom  all  responsibility  falls  and  in  whom  all  con- 
science exists. 

In  order  to  insure  universal  education  of  the  right  sort  our 
public  schools  were  inaugurated.  Through  this  means  per- 
sonal development  is  guaranteed  and  the  basis  for  independ- 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  A  NATIONAL  ASSET  3 

ent  government  is  maintained.  Faith  in  public  education  as 
an  enterprise  is  evidenced  by  the  growing  interest  which  the 
people  have  shown  in  it  through  the  years,  by  the  fact  that 
greater  financial  aid  has  been  given  each  year,  and  by  the 
further  fact  that  it  has  been  extended  to  include  all  the  dif- 
ferent types  of  human  development,  offering  opportunity  for 
technical  and  research  study  as  well  as  providing  a  recog- 
nized general  training.  The  school  has  often  been  called 
"the  birthright  of  the  children,"  and  it  is  not  an  uncommon 
thing  for  parents  to  make  sacrifices  in  order  that  their  chil- 
dren may  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  school  direction.  The 
State  has  shown  a  determination  to  protect  this  right  of  the 
child  by  enacting  compulsory  educational  laws.  These  laws 
vary  in  strictness  in  the  different  States,  but  usually  require 
children  to  attend  school  until  they  shall  have  had  at  least  a 
common  school  education  and  until  they  are  sixteen  years 
of  age.  Some  States  also  require  that  all  children  be  re- 
quired to  continue  even  after  this  age  or  attainment  unless 
profitably  employed.  Through  such  laws  the  State  aims  to 
protect  the  children  and  at  the  same  time  to  foster  inde- 
pendent citizenship  for  all  its  people. 

The  public  school  was  first  organized  to  supplement  the 
teachings  of  the  home  and  the  church.  It  was  maintained 
during  the  winter  months  when  the  children  could  really  be 
of  little  help  to  the  parents.  Children  were  required  to  work 
at  an  early  age  because  of  the  difficulties  surrounding  pio- 
neer life,  and  because  little  machinery,  which  in  recent  years 
has  saved  both  time  and  labor,  had  come  into  use.  The 
schools  at  first  represented  very  elementary  work,  and  the 
teaching  in  many  cases  was*  imperfect.  However,  this  insti- 
tution proved  its  adaptation  to  the  ever-changing  condi- 
tions and  won  for  itself  universal  approval  and  the  unquali- 
fied support  of  the  people. 

The  few  short  months  allotted  the  school  at  first  have  been 


4        HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

extended  until  now  the  "all-year"  school"  is  being  advo- 
cated. Many  city  communities  are  now  offering  such  ad- 
vantages to  their  children,  and  the  plan  is  sure  to  be  gener- 
ally adopted  in  time.  As  the  three  months'  school  grew  into 
the  six  months'  term,  and  the  six  months'  term  was  extended 
to  the  nine  and  ten  months'  requirement,  so  also  is  the  all- 
year  school  most  certain  to  become  an  organized  necessity 
in  our  final  plan  for  educational  work.  This  does  not  mean, 
of  course,  that  each  child  must  go  during  the  entire  year,  but 
rather  it  offers  the  opportunity  for  continuous  educational 
development,  wherever  that  is  possible,  and  also  it  offers  a 
varied  educational  opportunity,  suitable  to  different  kinds 
of  training  and  development,  in  addition  to  the  civic,  the 
social,  and  the  moral  training  which  has  usually  been  recog- 
nized as  a  first  requirement. 

New  subject-matter  has  been  injected  into  the  curricula 
from  year  to  year,  until  school  work  now  represents  a  work- 
shop of  the  most  practical  character,  in  addition  to  the  men- 
tal development  which  was  once  thought  to  be  the  only  re- 
quirement. The  three  H's,  representing  the  head,  the  hand, 
and  the  heart,  have  supplanted  the  old  idea  of  the  three  R's 
which  first  formed  the  required  elements.  To  discover  a 
child's  personal  characteristics  and  to  develop  him  so  that 
he  may  become  a  useful  member  of  society,  is  now  consid- 
ered as  important  as  to  direct  his  thinking  and  reasoning 
powers.  Or,  putting  it  in  another  way,  we  may  say  that  the 
application  of  knowledge  is  now  made  a  part  of  the  school's 
work. 

Education  has  its  rootlets  centered  deep  in  the  public 
school  system,  and  depends  in  a  large  measure  upon  this 
institution  to  formulate  the  basic  elements  which  develop, 
into  the  larger,  fuller,  and  more  complete  life  needs  and 
possibilities. 

Since  the  whole  child,  mental,  physical,  and  moral,  must 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  A  NATIONAL  ASSET  5 

go  to  school,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  make  this  insti- 
tution responsible  for  the  entire  unity  of  his  development. 
An  individual  must  have  a  good  physique  in  order  to  be  a 
valuable  member  of  society.  Proper  direction  during  child- 
hood insures  development  of  strength,  and  gives  the  right 
conception  of  health  as  well.  One  cannot  be  strong  unless 
one's  body  is  free  from  disease,  and  it  is  necessary  to  exercise 
proper  care  in  this  direction  throughout  one's  life.  All  sense 
training  must  be  done  during  childhood,  and  habits  of  the 
right  sort  should  be  formed  during  youth;  hence  this  is  the 
all-important  season  for  instilling  principles  that  will  insure 
health  and  strength  throughout  the  years.  More  and  more 
are  the  schools  coming  to  recognize  the  need  of  using  the 
greatest  care  in  directing  this  work,  and  each  year  additional 
responsibilities  come  in  administering  health  education. 

The  time  has  passed  when  the  teaching  of  a  little  physiol- 
ogy and  hygiene  sufficed,  for  this  proved  of  little  value  be- 
cause of  its  failure  to  make  an  impression  which  insured  per- 
sonal application.  In  the  best  schools  hygiene  is  now  taught 
by  doing,  and  the  lessons  taught  are  immediately  applied  to 
the  personal  needs  of  the  children.  Results  can  be  measured 
every  day,  and  the  children  are  forming  habits  during  this 
impressionable  period  which  will  cling  to  them  through  life. 
This  work  is  the  more  important  when  we  recognize  it  as 
preventive  teaching,  since  our  best  physicians  consider  this 
the  fundamental  basis  of  good  health.  This  adds  to  the  na- 
tional value  of  the  public  school  as  an  institution,  and  health 
education  work  will  be  emphasized  and  directed  more  care- 
fully in  all  of  the  schools  as  its  value  becomes  more  fully 
known. 

It  may  well  be  added  that  much  corrective  work  is  also 
being  done  in  many  of  the  schools.  Teachers  generally  are 
being  taught  to  detect  physical  weakness  and  to  cooperate 
with  parents  in  determining  the  best  means  of  giving  relief. 


6        HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

Through  medical  inspection  many  discoveries  have  been 
made  which  have  aided  not  only  in  improving  the  health  of 
the  children,  but  also  in  furthering  at  the  same  time  their 
mental  development.  The  early  years  of  the  child's  life 
seem  to  be  the  age  of  preparation,  the  time  during  which  he 
shall  fill  his  storehouse  with  abundant  energy,  the  time  dur- 
ing which  he  shall  convert  personal  characteristics  into  po- 
tential forces.  The  Nation  is  wise,  then,  in  concerning  itself 
deeply  in  the  development  and  general  welfare  of  each  child 
during  the  formative  period  of  his  life,  because  such  direction 
insures  a  more  useful  member  of  society. 

Last  but  not  least-  of  the  responsibilities  now  assigned  the 
school  is  that  of  moral  training.  Morality  is  really  a  growth, 
and  marks  the  individual  strongest  who  for  a  long  period  of 
time  is  exposed  to  the  highest  and  best  principles  of  life  and 
living.  The  proper  use  of  knowledge  is  really  fundamental 
in  education,  because  a  mind  well  developed,  but  used  for 
destructive  purposes,  becomes  a  greater  menace  to  society 
than  ignorance  itself.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  teach 
by  example  the  highest  moral  principles  and  to  place  an 
environment  about  the  school  and  about  child-life  in  gen- 
eral which  will  be  conducive  to  the  best  things.  During 
the  child's  early  years  moral  principles  may  be  established 
through  imitation.  It  is  most  important,  therefore,  to  fur- 
nish him  with  the  best,  as  types  from  which  to  copy. 

The  home  life  should  establish  the  first  standards,  but 
these  must  be  supplemented  in  the  school,  where  often 
deeper  impressions  are  made  on  a  child  than  through  any 
other  medium.  The  entire  atmosphere  of  the  school,  then, 
should  be  such  as  to  make  impressions  of  the  right  sort,  and 
each  community  should  place  upon  the  school  responsibili- 
ties which  will  insure  moral  teaching  both  by  precept  and  by 
example.  Any  influence  destructive  to  high  ideals  should  be 
removed  from  the  school  premises,  and  should  not  be  per- 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  A  NATIONAL  ASSET  7 

milled  in  any  neighborhood,  because  nobilily  of  character 
is  one  of  Ihe  firsl  elemenls  lo  bring  happiness  and  insure 
equality  and  fraternity  among  men. 

How  imporlanl  il  is  for  a  nalion  lo  be  able  lo  call  forth 
slrong  men  when  Ihe  principles  of  governmenl  need  lo  be 
mainlained!  How  valuable  il  is  lo  have  wise  counselors 
among  Ihe  people  in  limes  of  slress !  How  necessary  il  is  lo 
have  good  organizers  lo  formulate  Ihe  massive  slrenglh  inlo 
a  combined  force!  How  very  necessary  il  is  lo  have  Ihe 
scienlisl  who  peers  deep  inlo  Ihe  mysteries  of  Ihe  unknown 
and  discovers  Ihe  laws  which  influence  our  progress !  All  of 
Ihese,  combined  wilh  Ihe  universal  inlelligenl  cilizenship, 
represenl  every  phase  of  human  achievemenl,  and  wilh 
earnesl,  honesl  conviclions  in  undertaking  whal  is  besl  for 
all  mankind  —  such  cilizenship  is  Ihe  grealesl  assel  lhal  any 
nalion  can  have.  Inherent,  then,  in  Ihe  people  Ihemselves 
do  we  find  life's  grealesl  possibilities.  To  bring  Ihis  forth 
means  "education"  in  ils  biggesl  and  broadesl  sense. 

Wilh  all  Ihese  Ihings,  and  many  more  nol  menlioned,  giv- 
ing evidence  of  Ihe  worlh  of  public  educalion,  il  is  quite 
cerlain  lhal  greater  educalional  subsidies  will  be  provided 
in  fulure  years,  and  lhal  Ihe  public  school  will  be  able  to 
serve  in  a  larger  capacity  the  needs  of  a  free  people. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  evidence  have  we  that  education  really  pays? 

2.  Is  it  proper  to  tax  all  property,  including  public  utilities,  for  educa- 
tional purposes? 

3.  Are  our  public  schools  improving  as  rapidly  as  the  growth  and  devel- 
opment of  our  country  demands? 

4.  What  can  you  suggest  as  the  most  important  improvement  which 
could  be  made  by  the  public  school  as  it  now  exists? 

5.  To  what  extent  should  the  school  be  held  responsible  for  the  moral 
training  and  for  the  physical  and  health  education  of  the  children? 


CHAPTER  II 
GENERAL  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION 

The  Nation  and  the  States 

THE  National  Government  made  no  provision  for  education 
at  the  time  our  Federal  Constitution  was  adopted.  This 
was  an  intended  omission,  because  it  was  strongly  believed 
at  that  time  that  the  schools  should  be  directed  and  adminis- 
tered entirely  by  the  States.  In  the  President's  Cabinet, 
therefore,  as  it  was  originally  organized,  and  as  it  has  been 
rearranged  through  the  years,  no  Department  of  Education 
has  been  established.  There  has  been  a  growing  sentiment 
in  favor  of  such  a  Department,  and  with  the  new  recognition 
given  to  education  nationally  there  is  every  reason  why  such 
a  provision  should  be  made.  Now  that  the  common  school 
system  has  proved  its  worth,  and  has  been  recognized  as  a 
national  enterprise,  there  is  every  reason  why  it  should  be 
fostered  and  harmonized  in  a  way  better  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  National  Government. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  Ohio 
was  admitted  as  a  State  (1802),  there  was  a  provision  in- 
serted into  its  Constitution  which  required  that  section 
number  sixteen  in  each  township  be  set  aside  as  a  subsidy  for 
public  school  education.  In  accepting  this  Constitution  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  established  a  precedent,  which 
continued  as  a  definite  provision  in  each  state  constitution 
for  almost  fifty  years.  It  should  be  stated  that  before  the 
admission  of  Ohio  several  of  the  States  made  no  provision 
for  public  education  in  their  constitutions,  while  others  made 
only  slight  mention  as  to  the  establishment  of  public  educa- 
tion. Our  national  policy  in  education  then  really  had  its 


GENERAL  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION  9 

beginning  with  the  approval  of  the  Constitution  of  the  State 
of  Ohio. 

Nearly  fifty  years  later,  when  California  was  admitted  to 
the  Union,  there  was  a  provision  in  its  Constitution  that 
two  sections,  sixteen  and  thirty-six,  be  set  aside  in  that 
State  as  a  land  grant  for  the  common  schools.  For  forty 
years  this  precedent  continued  to  be  recognized  in  the  case 
of  each  State  applying  for  admission,  with  the  exception  of 
the  State  of  West  Virginia,  admitted  during  the  Civil  War 
in  1863,  whose  Constitution  made  no  provision  for  a  public 
school  land  grant.  Three  States,  namely:  Utah,  Arizona, 
and  New  Mexico,  admitted  since  1890,  have  provisions  for 
four  sections,  two  and  thirty-two  having  been  added  to  the 
old  provision. 

There  were  other  types  of  subsidies  provided  for  by  some 
of  the  States,  but  these  vary  so  much  that  each  individual 
case  cannot  be  cited.  This  additional  provision,  provided 
for  in  the  Illinois  Constitution,  may  serve  as  a  type: 

Five  per  cent  of  the  net  proceeds  of  the  lands  lying  within  the 
State  of  Illinois  which  shall  be  sold  by  Congress,  from  the  first  day 
of  July,  1819,  after  deducting  all  expenses  incident  to  the  same, 
shall  be  reserved  for  the  purposes  following,  namely:  two  fifths  to 
be  disbursed  under  the  direction  of  Congress  in  making  roads 
leading  to  the  State;  the  residue  to  be  appropriated,  by  the  Legis- 
lature of  the  State,  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  of  which 
one  sixth  part  shall  be  exclusively  bestowed  on  a  college  or  uni- 
versity. 

That  thirty-six  sections,  or  one  entire  township,  which  shall  be 
designated  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  together  with 
the  one  heretofore  reserved  for  that  purpose,  shall  be  reserved 
for  the  use  of  a  seminary  of  learning,  and  vested  in  the  legislature 
of  the  State,  to  be  appropriated  solely  to  the  use  of  such  seminary 
by  said  legislature. 

The  older  States,  which  constituted  the  Union  before  the 
admission  of  Ohio,  soon  began  to  sense  the  value  of  these 


10      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

land  subsidies,  and  adopted  within  their  respective  legis- 
latures the  following  resolution: 

Resolved  that  each  of  the  United  States  have  an  equal  right  to 
participate  in  the  benefit  of  the  public  lands  as  the  common  prop- 
erty of  the  Union ;  and  that  the  States  in  whose  favor  Congress  has 
not  yet  made  appropriations  of  lands  for  the  purpose  of  education, 
are  entitled  to  such  appropriations  as  will  be  in  just  proportion 
with  those  heretofore  made  in  favor  of  the  other  States. 

After  much  discussion  by  the  National  Congress,  and 
after  many  different  plans  were  proposed,  this  matter  was 
finally  dropped  indefinitely  until  1862,  when  Senator  Morrill 
introduced  a  bill  in  Congress  providing  a  land  subsidy  for 
the  encouragement  of  agricultural  teaching  and  scientific 
engineering  training.  With  the  approval  of  this  bill  a  new 
precedent  was  established,  following  which  came  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Land  Grant  colleges  and  institutions  for  the 
encouragement  of  agriculture  and  the  industrial  sciences. 
This  led  to  the  provision  in  the  Constitution  of  the  later- 
admitted  States  for  large  land  grants  for  institutions  of 
higher  learning.  Subsequently,  too,  the  Hatch  Fund  (1887) 
and  the  Adams  Fund  (1890)  were  created  by  Congress,  to 
encourage  agricultural  experimentation  and  teaching;  the 
Smith-Lever  Fund  was  provided  (1914)  to  inaugurate  ex- 
tension work  in  agriculture  and  home  economics;  and  the 
Smith-Hughes  Fund  (1917)  for  the  encouragement  of  indus- 
trial training  and  agricultural  work  in  institutions  below 
the  college  grade. 

The  worth  of  education  to  the  Government  has  become  so 
apparent  during  the  recent  great  World  War  that  many  im- 
portant changes  are  sure  to  come  in  the  near  future.  A 
great  movement  for  the  establishment  of  a  Department  of 
Education  in  the  National  Cabinet  has  been  launched.  Con- 
gress has  in  so  many  ways  expressed  its  interest  that  it 
seems  now  only  necessary  to  present  it  in  proper  form  in 


GENERAL  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION  11 

order  to  have  the  establishment  of  such  a  department  ap- 
proved. There  is  every  indication,  too,  that  a  large  sum  of 
money,  involving  many  millions,  will  soon  be  provided  by 
Congress  to  be  divided  equitably  among  the  States  for  the 
furthering  of  education  to  meet  new  specific  demands.  It  is 
likely  that  a  part  of  such  fund  will  be  set  aside  for  types 
of  education  which  will  standardize  basic  requirements  for 
citizenship,  divided  according  to  the  needs  of  each  of  the 
States.  It  is  certain,  too,  that  a  large  portion  will  be  pro- 
vided for  "Teachers'  Training  Courses,"  because  therein  lies 
the  basis  for  educational  advancement.  If  all  teachers  are 
thoroughly  trained  and  are  required  to  meet  standards  of 
efficiency  and  adaptation  to  school  work,  then  and  only  then 
will  such  large  revenues  appropriated  bring  adequate  re- 
turns in  results  obtained.  Equitable  subdivisions  of  such 
fund  will  care  for  the  newer  types  of  education  which  now 
seem  necessary  in  meeting  new  ideals  and  providing  for 
our  ever-changing  requirements. 

In  assuming  larger  financial  responsibility,  the  Federal 
Government  is  certain  to  assume  closer  direction  of  our  edu- 
cational development,  and  through  its  cooperation  greater 
harmony  will  be  brought  about  between  the  different  States. 
Of  course  the  larger  responsibility  must  continue  to  devolve 
upon  the  individual  States,  and  therefore  the  main  directing 
force  of  administration  will  remain  there.  Already  the  plan 
in  each  State  is  so  well  established,  and  the  general  policies 
for  improvement  so  well  in  hand,  that  the  plan  of  the  Na- 
tional Government  need  be  coordination  and  cooperation 
rather  than  direct  administration. 

State  Educational  Organization 

The  plan  of  school  administration  and  the  purpose  of  its 
organization  have  l)een  quite  similar  for  each  of  the  States. 
This  is  because  the  newer  States  copy  from  the  older  ones. 


12     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

The  popularity  of  the  franchise  system  made  it  easy  for  the 
school  to  be  directed  by  this  plan.  State,  county,  and  dis- 
trict school  officers  have  in  accordance  with  this  provision 
been  chosen  by  popular  vote  of  the  people.  Because  of  thir 
the  general  plan  of  public  school  administration  has  beeL 
considered  political.  This  is  really  not  true  in  fact,  though 
the  state  and  county  officers  have  usually  been  nominated 
and  elected  by  political  parties.  District  officers  have  gen- 
erally been  chosen  by  the  electors  of  the  district,  but  the 
school  election  in  the  several  States  has  usually  been  set  at 
a  different  time  from  the  general  election  in  order  that  po- 
litical consideration  might  be  eliminated  fromit.  In  recent 
years,  too,  state  and  county  officers  have,  by  common  con- 
sent, been  somewhat  separated  from  political  control,  and 
efforts  have  been  made  to  introduce  efficiency  into  all  school 
work  even  though  subject  to  political  control. 

The  growing  interest  in  the  public  school  as  an  institution 
closely  allied  to  the  people's  personal  interest  has  recently 
caused  a  strong  sentiment  to  arise  in  favor  of  making  their 
controlling  interests  completely  non-political.  Several  States, 
through  legislative  enactment,  have  provided  for  non-polit- 
ical State  Boards  of  Education,  to  which  authority  is  given 
to  control  and  manage  public  education  throughout  the 
State.  A  State  Commissioner  of  Education  is  then  chosen  by 
such  a  board,  to  take  the  place  of  the  elected  State  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction.  The  County-Unit  plan,  too, 
has  been  adopted  in  many  States.  This  provides  for  the 
election  of  a  County  Board  of  Education,  by  the  people  oi 
the  whole  county,  and  this  Board  in  turn  selects  and  ar> 
points  the  chief  county  school  officer,  and  provides  for  a 
reorganization  of  the  school  districts  of  the  county  into 
units  better  suited  to  meet  the  new  educational  needs.  The 
States  have  not  generally  accepted  this  proposition,  though 
it  has  been  partially  adopted  in  various  modified  forms  by  a 


GENERAL  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION  13 

number  of  the  States,  and  the  tendency  to  believe  in  the 
general  non-political  principle  is  steadily  growing. 

A  State  Board  of  Education  is  usually  provided  by  the 
several  States  as  a  unifying  element  and  organized  upon  a 
basis  somewhat  different  in  character.  In  some  States  the 
members  are  wholly  appointive.  In  others  there  are  provi- 
sions for  an  ex-officio  membership,  which  includes  the  state 
school  administrative  officer  as  ex-officio  chairman,  and  the 
heads  of  state  institutions  as  regular  members.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  there  are  often  added  appointive  members,  for 
the  purpose  of  better  representing  the  entire  school  system. 
These  appointive  members  are  usually  chosen  to  represent 
the  elementary  and  the  high  schools.  In  some  States  a  lay 
board  is  chosen  with  administrative  duties  alone,  while  in 
a  few  States  a  combined  board,  representing  lay  members 
and  members  representing  educational  departments,  are  pro- 
vided for. 

In  every  case  this  board  holds  an  important  position  and 
special  powers  are  given  to  it.  It  serves  as  a  unifying  ele- 
ment to  the  whole  system  of  education  within  the  State.  It 
is  called  upon  to  hold  regular  meetings  during  the  year,  at 
which  time  it  sits  as  an  educational  council  for  the  purpose 
of  discussing  and  settling  the  larger  educational  problems 
involving  state  needs.  Specific  duties  of  this  board  are 
usually  set  forth  in  the  school  law  in  each  of  the  individual 
States,  and  the  general  policies  of  the  board  may  be  found 
in  the  educational  report  of  the  State. 

The  executive  officer  for  the  State  is  usually  known  as 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  or  State  Commis- 
sioner of  Education.  The  latter  is  the  name  applied  by 
States  using  the  appointive  rather  than  the  elective  system. 
The  former  has  always  been  an  elective  officer,  chosen  from 
among  the  citizenship  of  the  State.  In  order  to  meet  the 
new  demands  placed  upon  this  institution  of  the  people, v 


14      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

the  executive  officer  must  hold  the  confidence  of  the  depart- 
ments under  his  supervision,  and  be  able  to  inspire  them 
with  high  motives  for  the  common  good.  He  must  be 
broad  and  liberal  in  his  rulings,  and  just  and  fair  in  his  deci- 
sions. This  state  officer  should  be  a  leader  in  educational 
thought,  and  should  be  able  to  organize  the  work  of  the 
State  into  cooperative  units  for  general  improvement.  A 
definite  policy  should  be  worked  out  for  vitalizing  the  work 
of  the  smaller  units,  and  the  least  district  of  the  State  should 
feel  the  directing  influences  of  the  State's  well-organized 
plan  and  motive.  Since  it  is  incumbent  upon  every  citizen 
to  see  to  it  that  the  educational  system  should  provide  for 
the  best  opportunity  in  each  community,  the  work  must  be 
started  well  by  first  providing  an  executive  officer  of  large 
insight  and  executive  capacity. 

County  Educational  Organization 

The  county  usually  forms  a  secondary  means  for  school 
administration  within  the  State,  and  the  County  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,  or  County  School  Commissioner,  becomes 
its  administrative  officer.  This  office  is  of  great  importance 
to  school  development  because  it  represents  a  unit  in  size 
which  more  nearly  responds  to  the  powers  of  control  of  the 
people.  Since  it  is  agreed  that  true  leadership  is  necessary 
to  progress,  it  is  very  important  that  this  office  be  filled  by 
an  individual  possessing  qualities  of  real  merit.  He  must  be 
able  to  think  and  to  feel  in  the  terms  of  the  common  people. 
He  must  win  their  confidence  to  the  degree  that  they  will 
follow  his  carefully  laid  plans.  The  county  officer's  work 
must  be  supervisory,  as  well  as  administrative.  He  must 
furnish  inspiration  for  teachers  and  school  officers,  and  must, 
in  a  general  way,  supervise  the  work  of  the  schoolroom  in  the 
interest  of  the  pupils.  His  counsel  must  be  wise  and  his 
judgment  sure  in  dealing  with  the  many  problems  which 


GENERAL  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION  15 

arise  under  his  jurisdiction.  To  carry  forth  this  work  in  a 
satisfactory  manner  requires  a  man  or  a  woman  thoroughly 
trained  not  only  in  teaching,  but  in  modern  educational 
ideas  as  well.  In  addition  to  this  he  or  she  must  possess 
adaptability  in  character,  honesty  of  purpose,  and  a  desire 
to  serve  in  the  largest  and  best  manner.  The  personal  direc- 
tion needed  in  this  office  requires  leadership  and  personal 
vision,  and  the  people  of  the  county  should  require  for  this 
position  one  who  has  the  highest  qualifications. 

District  Educational  Organization 

In  a  majority  of  our  States  the  county  is  broken  up  into 
smaller  units,  known  as  school  districts.  Each  of  these  has 
specific  boundary  lines,  and  a  plan  of  organization  adaptable 
to  community  work.  The  local  Board  of  Trustees  here  be- 
come the  potent  factor  in  making  the  school  standards  repre- 
sent the  wishes  of  the  people  of  the  district.  The  Board 
stands  for  the  local  community,  the  interests  of  its  neighbors 
and  friends,  and  the  well-being  of  the  children  whom  the 
members  personally  know.  Each  act  of  the  Board  may  be 
seen  by  all  those  whose  wishes  it  represents.  It  has  been 
chosen  to  carry  into  effect  the  neighborhood's  wishes  in  con- 
nection with  the  school's  best  development.  It  has  been 
chosen  to  direct  the  spirit  of  the  community  in  an  educa- 
tional way.  Each  member  must  be  willing  to  carry  what- 
ever responsibilities  are  necessary  for  the  common  good  of 
the  school.  Each  one  must  be  broad-minded  and  liberal, 
yet  fearless  in  doing  his  dutf .  As  a  directing  board  it  must 
be  willing  to  listen  to  suggestions,  and  to  bear  such  crit- 
icism as  usually  conies  to  those  who  accept  public  respon- 
sibility. 

Each  member  of  this  Board  of  Trustees  or  Directors  ought 
to  support  and  usually  does  support  the  educational  leaders 


16      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

of  the  district.  Each  member  should  be  chosen  by  the  peo- 
ple with  that  thought  in  mind.  It  should  be  considered  a 
position  of  trust,  with  duties  attached  to  it  which  are  of  the 
greatest  and  gravest  concern  to  the  neighborhood's  well- 
being  and  to  the  children's  education.  Required  work 
should  be  done  cheerfully,  even  though  there  be  no  tangi- 
ble compensation  provided.  Heavy  responsibilities  which 
sometimes  come  to  this  board  should  be  accepted  without 
complaint.  The  best  compensation  after  all  is  a  personal 
knowledge  of  well-rendered  service,  because  the  greatest 
things  come  to  mankind  through  personal  sacrifices  freely 
made  for  others.  Life's  duties  accepted  graciously  always 
improve  the  individual,  and  officers  who  have  been  faithful 
through  the  years  have  made  in  spirit  and  in  purpose  a 
contribution  to  be  commended. 

Our  best  fathers  and  mothers  are  busy  people,  but  never 
too  busy  to  consider  what  is  best  for  their  children.  The 
time  quickly  passes  when  the  home  holds  the  direction  of  the 
child.  Almost  as  a  baby  from  its  mother's  arms  the  child 
at  six  years  of  age  enrolls  in  the  public  schools.  The  par- 
ents' interests  are  now  divided  between  two  institutions,  for 
their  child  has  come  to  be  the  subject  of  both.  Early  in  the 
morning  it  must  leave  the  parental  household  and  spend  the 
best  part  of  its  waking  day  with  the  children  of  the  neigh- 
borhood in  that  common  institution,  the  public  school, 
which  has  so  endeared  itself  to  the  hearts  of  all  thoughtful 
parents.  Each  home  has  a  deeper  interest  as  it  is  personally 
represented  in  the  school.  So  the  most  important  responsi- 
bility of  the  community  is  to  make  the  school  a  worthy 
educational  center. 


GENERAL  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION  17 


SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  Should  the  National  Government  assume  a  greater  financial  respon- 
sibility for  public  education?     Why? 

2.  How  has  the  Nation  already  shown  its  interest  in  our  public  schools? 

3.  Give  some  ways  whereby  the  school  system  can  assist  the  National 
Government  directly. 

4.  Has  it  proved  advantageous  for  the  National  Government  to  delegate 
the  control  of  education  to  the  individual  States,  allowing  each  State 
to  shape  its  own  laws  and  direct  its  own  work  as  seemed  best  suited 
to  its  needs,  or  not?    Why? 

5.  Have  the  States  failed  in  any  way  to  measure  up  to  our  national  needs 
in  carrying  out  their  individual  plans  for  education? 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  SCHOOL  ELECTION  AND  CHOOSING  SCHOOL 
OFFICERS 

EVERY  man  and  "woman  living  in  this  country  should  have  a 
very  clear  conception  of  civic  responsibilities.  They  should 
be  familiar  with  our  governmental  plan  of  organization,  and 
should  know  the  principles  set  forth  in  our  National  Con- 
stitution. To  be  a  good  citizen  of  any  country  requires 
accurate  knowledge  of  citizenship  requirements  and  a  will- 
ingness to  meet  the  responsibilities  in  full  measure.  One 
must  be  in  accord  with  the  foundation  plan  in  order  to  ally 
himself  unreservedly  to  these  basic  principles.  True  loy- 
alty is  more  than  an  outward  expression  and  can  be  properly 
voiced  only  by  conscientious  approval. 

Representative  government  has  been  a  long  time  coming 
to  the  civilized  world,  and  even  now  many  well-disposed 
people  do  not  understand  the  meaning  of  "Freedom"  in  its 
largest  sense.  When  we  speak  of  a  government  "of  the 
people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the  people,"  we  must  not  for- 
get that  there  are  now  more  than  one  hundred  millions  of  us. 
We  cannot  all  speak  directly  upon  every  question,  but  our 
representative  plan  enables  us  to  speak  through  those  whom 
we  have  chosen  to  represent  our.  best  interests.  Neither 
must  we  forget  that  "the  greatest  good  for  the  greatest  num- 
ber" must  be  recognized  in  the  consideration  of  all  final  deci- 
sions. Certain  rights  may  be  held  as  inviolate,  but  in  order 
to  progress  we  must  be  ready  to  adjust  ourselves  to  new  con- 
ditions for  general  improvement. 

The  ballot  is  our  personal  right,  and  by  it  many  important 
things  of  government,  of  state,  and  of  community  are  de- 


SCHOOL  ELECTION;  CHOOSING  OFFICERS        19 

cided.  Failure  to  exercise  this  right  is  a  crime  against  de- 
mocracy. Every  good  citizen  looks  upon  the  opportunity 
to  vote  as  a  great  privilege,  wherein  an  opportunity  is  given 
him  to  become  a  part  of  the  decisive  power  of  things  pertain- 
ing to  the  needs  and  to  the  welfare  of  citizenship.  If  a 
nation  is  to  be  strong  it  must  be  decisive.  If  an  individual 
is  to  be  strong,  he,  too,  must  exercise  that  same  quality.  In 
deciding  the  great  questions  of  the  day  the  ballot  has  proved 
to  be  an  effective  means.  Through  this  the  people  have 
made  known  their  will,  and  the  majority  vote  has  usually 
been  accepted  without  question.  It  therefore  becomes  a 
duty  as  well  as  a  privilege  to  exercise  this  right  intelligently. 

We  land  it  necessary  to  delegate  many  of  our  rights,  how- 
ever important  they  may  be.  In  doing  this  we  centralize 
responsibility,  and  secure  better  results  than  could  otherwise 
be  attained.  The  great  cost  of  the  general  election  now  is 
prohibitive  as  a  decisive  power  for  all  of  our  needs.  So  we 
use  this  as  a  means  of  selecting  those  whom  we  believe  best 
suited  to  become  our  spokesmen,  and  we  delegate  to  them 
certain  of  our  rights.  The  question  has  many  times  arisen 
as  to  how  many  questions  wre  ought  to  undertake  to  settle 
directly,  and  what  things  should  be  delegated  to  our  per- 
sonal representatives.  No  agreement  has  been  reached  in 
this  matter,  and  probably  there  wTill  always  be  a  difference 
of  opinion  concerning  this  point.  One  thing  we  should  al- 
ways keep  in  mind  in  this  connection,  —  that  is  to  choose 
wisely  wrhenever  the  question  of  choice  devolves  upon  us. 
Then  we  shall  be  better  able  to  hold  our  representatives 
responsible  for  wisdom  and  good  judgment  in  all  of  their 
actions  pertaining  to  the  general  welfare. 

The  Nation  can  be  only  the  aggregate  of  what  its  citizens 
represent.  Hence  the  smaller  community  units,  wrhich  are 
more  individualized,  represent  the  strongest  factors  which  go 
to  make  up  the  general  federal  unit.  A  strong  energized 


20      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

decisive  community  knows  no  such  word  as  failure  when 
applied  to  its  progress  and  to  its  individual  needs.  It  may 
have,  and  usually  does  have,  a  reputation  which  gives  it  an 
individual  function  of  being  recognized  in  a  most  definite 
manner.  As  individuals  differ,  so  also  do  communities 
differ,  and  it  is  quite  as  important  to  choose  well  our  place  of 
living  in  a  community  of  the  highest  type  as  it  is  to  choose 
wisely  our  personal  associates.  Even  more  important  than 
either  of  these  is  it  that  every  individual  should  try  to  secure 
for  the  community  in  which  he  lives  the  very  best  civic  con- 
ditions. To  do  this  he  must  become  a  part  of  the  commu- 
nity activities  and  intelligently  study  the  needs  in  a  con- 
scientious broad-minded  light.  His  interest  should  inspire 
action  fraught  with  good  judgment,  and  he  should  have  a 
desire  to  do  his  whole  duty  in  a  most  honorable  way.  He 
should  bear  hi  mind  the  rights  of  his  neighbors,  and  should 
respect  their  honest  opinions.  In  the  last  analysis  he  should 
be  willing  to  abide  by  what  the  majority  believes  to  be  for 
the  best. 

No  other  question  is  more  vital  to  the  community's  well- 
being  than  that  having  to  do  with  the  education  of  the  chil- 
dren. When  school  problems  must  be  determined  by  fran- 
chise this  right  should  be  more  carefully  exercised  than  ever. 
The  school  building  is  usually  chosen  for  the  meeting  place 
and  due  notice  is  usually  given  pertaining  to  all  questions 
under  consideration.  In  many  States  school  trustees  are 
chosen  at  the  annual  school  election,  and  the  occasion  ought 
to  be  important  enough  to  cause  every  voter  to  do  his  duty 
on  this  special  day.  There  are  usually  several  other  im- 
portant questions  to  be  settled.  Additional  finances,  over 
and  above  that  provided  by  the  State  and  the  county,  may 
be  required  to  maintain  the  school  properly.  The  grounds 
or  the  buildings  may  need  improvement.  It  is  a  good  thing 
to  inspect  the  school  premises  carefully,  and  to  discuss 


SCHOOL  ELECTION;  CHOOSING  OFFICERS        21 

changes  which  the  patrons  of  the  district  would  like  to  make 
during  the  year.  The  financial  report  may  well  be  posted 
on  the  blackboard,  and  full  explanation  given  by  the  officer 
in  charge. 

A  report  of  the  year's  work  made  by  the  Trustees  should 
be  read  at  the  opening  of  the  meeting.  Nothing  is  more  im- 
portant to  the  community  than  to  meet  in  a  common  cause 
and  exchange  ideas  on  matters  pertaining  to  the  general 
good.  No  qualified  voter  can  afford  to  forego  the  right  to 
take  part  in  this  important  gathering,  and  every  one  should 
feel  the  importance  of  giving  sufficient  time  to  "council" 
and  to  the  social  importance  of  the  meeting.  The  latter  may 
be  made  a  most  beneficial  feature  of  such  a  meeting,  but  the 
former  is  indispensable  to  the  best  progress. 

The  time  of  this  meeting  should  be  when  leisure  moments 
are  most  abundant.  Due  consideration  should  be  given  to 
season  and  to  occupation  of  the  people.  Due  notice  must 
be  given,  with  meeting  place  designated  if  other  than  the 
school  building.  Many  States  make  detailed  provisions  for 
the  meeting  in  the  school  law,  all  of  which  the  district  is 
required  to  observe  and  follow.  It  is  an  advantage  always 
to  set  forth,  in  the  public  notice  given,  a  clear  concise  mem- 
orandum of  all  transactions  which  the  Board  desire  to  have 
the  voters  consider.  Supplementary  explanation  may  be 
made  on  election  day  if  everything  is  not  clear,  and  never 
under  any  circumstances  should  vague  propositions  be  voted 
upon. 

The  most  discouraging  thing  about  the  school  election  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  generally  it  is  not  a  well-attended 
meeting.  Careful  investigation  of  records  of  many  of  the 
States  shows  that  not  fifty  per  cent  of  the  districts,  especially 
of  rural  communities,  have  had  more  than  barely  enough 
voters  present  on  school  election  day  to  form  a  quorum  and 
complete  the  lawful  organization.  A  closer  inspection  of 


22       HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

records  from  several  States  shows  that  only  twenty-eight 
per  cent  of  the  qualified  electors  have  actually  voted  on  any 
and  all  of  the  measures  proposed.  Many  specific  instances 
are  shown  where  not  more  than  five  per  cent  of  .the  voting 
population  have  taken  any  part  in  the  school  election.  A 
careful  comparison  gives  evidence  of  the  fact  that  questions 
of  increased  levy  bring  out  the  largest  vote.  Factional  in- 
terests, too,  have  been  the  means  of  an  increased  vote,  but 
in  the  majority  of  these  cases  the  results  have  been  detri- 
mental to  the  community  and  to  the  school.  Specific  in- 
stances are  found  in  the  records  which  show  that  districts 
have  not  held  a  school  election  for  two  or  more  years,  and 
have  depended  entirely  upon  the  County  Superintendent 
or  other  lawful  authority  to  appoint  these  officers. 

Another  discouraging  feature  comes  from  the  fact  that  in 
many  school  districts  it  is  hard  to  find  a  man  or  w7oman  who 
will  willingly  accept  the  position.  Those  having  children  to 
educate  will  take  the  office  as  a  necessity  during  the  time 
their  children  are  in  school.  In  other  instances  the  one  indi- 
vidual citizen  who  ought  not  to  be  chosen  as  school  director, 
because  of  good  and  sufficient  reasons,  is  the  one  who  desires 
the  office  and  who  is  elected  because  there  is  a  dearth  of  can- 
didates. These  things  all  militate  against  our  scheme  of 
administration,  and  are  bound  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of 
all  good  citizens  the  need  for  a  more  responsive  plan.  One 
of  two  things  is  quite  certain;  either  the  elective  plan  must 
elicit  greater  interest,  or  some  more  effective  one  must  take 
its  place. 

The  next  few  years  will  decide  the  matter,  because  already 
several  States  have  become  dissatisfied  with  results  and  leg- 
islative authorization  has  been  given  for  a  closer  organiza- 
tion with  centralized  authority.  Such  a  change  is  likely  to 
be  hastened,  too,  by  the  fact  that  education  may  soon  be 
considered  of  greater  worth  as  a  national  asset  than  it  is  as 


SCHOOL  ELECTION;  CHOOSING  OFFICERS        23 

an  individual  possession.  If  national  ideals  must  be  prop- 
agated and  shaped  within  the  public  schools,  then  the  Gov- 
ernment must  see  to  it  that  this  institution  is  not  handled  in 
a  haphazard  fashion.  This  means  no  reflection  on  the  well- 
disposed  community,  but  rather  does  it  point  to  the  fact 
that  too  much  may  be  expected  of  individual  citizens  who 
are  already  busy  with  their  own  affairs  and  who  already  are 
overloaded  with  other  responsibilities.  It  shows,  too,  that 
the  elective  plan  may  not  always  prove  to  be  truly  repre- 
sentative. 

Whatever  plan  is  followed  in  making  the  choice  it  is 
equally  certain  that  the  executive  officers  of  the  school 
should  be  composed  of  men  and  women  best  qualified  and 
best  adapted  to  administer  wisely  in  this  capacity.  Broad- 
minded  people  and  often  "broad-shouldered"  people  are  the 
best  to  choose.  It  requires  individuals  who  are  willing  to 
sacrifice,  who  will  give  of  their  time  freely  when  occasions 
demand  it,  and  who  will  consider  it  a  privilege  to  serve,  to 
make  really  good  trustees.  Such  officers  must  be  willing 
to  listen  to  all  individual  differences  and  carefully  consider 
them,  but  finally  they  must  honestly  and  fearlessly  make 
such  adjustments  as  seem  to  be  for  the  best  general  good  of 
the  school  life.  The  idea  is  quite  common  that  there  are 
few  people  who  have  both  the  qualifications  and  the  adapta- 
tion to  do  this  work  well.  The  remedy  offered  is  that  we 
shall  have  fewer  trustees  in  our  new  plan  of  organization; 
that  the  man  who  does  have  adaptation  shall  serve  in  a 
larger  capacity  than  is  now  possible  in  the  smaller  district 
organization.  This  work  is  important  enough  to  require 
the  most  careful  management  and  to  demand  responsible 
executive  authority. 

To  make  such  an  organization  prove  most  fruitful  may 
require  better  officers.  Since  time  is  an  asset  to  the  average 
man,  he  can  give  only  a  limited  amount  of  this  without  pay. 


24      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

Better  then  is  it  to  furnish  some  small  remuneration,  if  by  so 
doing  efficiency  be  increased.  Since  the  delegation  of  our 
powers  has  been  essential  in  the  administration  of  our  af- 
fairs, there  is  every  reason  why  those  acting  in  an  aggregate 
way  in  our  individual  stead  should  be  paid  some  small  re- 
turn for  their  time  and  for  their  talent.  If  then  through  a 
lack  of  active  interest  the  people  fail  to  make  strong  their 
local  district  by  means  of  the  elective  method,  then  they 
should  join  heartily  in  a  plan  which  will  guarantee  a  better 
scheme  in  caring  for  the  important  duties  connected  with 
this  office  and  necessary  to  wholesome  educational  progress. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  the  elective  system  a  satisfactory  plan  for  choosing  school  district 
administrative  officers? 

2.  Does  the  present  plan  of  local  management  give  the  very  best  educa- 
tional returns  for  the  money  which  the  people  are  expending  for  public 

.  education?    Why? 

3.  Why  is  it  considered  desirable  to  have  three  or  more  school  officers 
rather  than  one  for  the  management  of  the  administrative  affairs  of 
a  school  district? 

4.  Is  it  an  advantage  to  have  a  county  trustees  or  directors  meeting, 
where  all  district  school  officers  can  meet  for  counsel  and  for  the 
discussion  of  public  school  affairs? 


CHAPTER  IV 
WORK  OF  THE  ORGANIZED  SCHOOL  BOARD 

To  make  a  good  school  officer  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
general  requirements  of  the  school  law  as  set  forth  in  the 
State  School  Code,  to  know  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the 
State  Board  governing  school  board  action,  and  to  be  fa- 
miliar with  the  neighborhood's  wishes  affecting  school  work. 
Such  officers  are  usually  required  to  qualify  by  taking  an 
oath  of  office  and  subscribing  to  regular  lawful  requirements. 
Their  first  official  act  should  be  to  organize;  or  if  they  have 
no  such  lawful  requirement,  to  organize  in  a  manner  to  in- 
sure an  effective  working  committee.  All  official  acts  should 
take  place  at  a  regular  meeting  or  at  a  special  meeting  called 
for  a  specific  purpose.  In  general  practice  business  of  any 
kind  may  come  up  at  a  regular  meeting  in  addition  to  that 
provided  for  by  items  of  the  regular  calendar;  while  at  a 
special  meeting  only  such  items  of  business  may  be  consid- 
ered as  are  set  forth  in  a  "call  notice."  In  calling  for  a 
special  meeting  several  plans  are  practiced,  the  main  essen- 
tial being  a  clear  understanding  by  all  members.  Usually 
such  a  meeting  is  called  by  the  Chairman,  or  may  be  called 
at  the  request  of  a  majority  of  the  members.  Some  organ- 
izations provide  that  the  Clerk  shall  call  the  meeting  instead 
of  the  Chairman,  but  in  either  case  definiteness  should  be 
followed  in  such  notice,  giving  time  and  place  as  well  as  the 
calendar  of  business  concerning  which  said  members  will  be 
called  upon  to  participate. 

Probably  one  of  the  greatest  mistakes  that  busy  board 
members  make  is  to  give  decisions  individually  when  not  in 
regular  session.  It  may  be  some  time  before  the  regular 


26      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

meeting  is  to  be  held,  and  it  may  not  be  convenient  to  hold 
a  special  one  for  a  single  item  of  business.  So  personal  ap- 
proval in  such  a  case  is  often  given  without  due  consider- 
ation, the  one  receiving  the  same  going  from  one  member  to 
the  other  and  probably  quoting  to  his  own  advantage  state- 
ments of  some  one  member  previously  interviewed.  By 
being  approached  in  such  a  manner  by  the  wily  agent,  or 
by  the  inconsistent  teacher  who  requires  an  immediate  an- 
swer, members  of  a  board  have  been  individually  led  into  do- 
ing an  act  which  they  would  not  have  done  when  in  coun- 
cil together.  Districts  have  been  seriously  involved  many 
times  in  this  way,  though  individual  board  members  meant 
well  in  their  assented  action. 

To  avoid  such  mistakes  a  good  working  organization  is 
of  first  importance.  Members  should  agree  to  stand  to- 
gether for  the  very  best  service  to  the  district.  They  should 
agree  to  transact  no  official  business  except  at  a  meeting, 
where  the  majority  of  the  members  are  present  and  voting. 
A  complete  record  should  be  made  of  each  item  of  business, 
and  the  minutes  of  the  meeting  should  be  approved  only 
after  everything  pertaining  to  all  of  the  regular  transactions 
is  clearly  set  forth.  This  approval  should  be  made  at  the 
close  of  the  meeting  if  possible,  because  in  many  districts 
regular  meetings  are  not  held  often  enough  for  the  mem- 
bers to  recall  individually  each  item  until  the  next  regular 
meeting. 

Following  is  a  sample  taken  from  the  Clerk's  Record 
Book  which  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  good  practice: 

School  District  Number  148 

County,  Washington 

March  30,  1916 

In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  law  the  old  members  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees  and  the  newly  elected  member  met  at  the  school- 
house  Saturday  afternoon  at  2.00  o'clock  on  the  above  date  for  the 


WORK  OF  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  27 

purpose  of  forming  a  regular  working  organization.  Mr.  Johnson, 
Chairman  of  the  outgoing  Board,  administered  the  oath  of  cffiiv 
to  Mr.  Simms,  the  incoming  elected  member,  who  received  the 
majority  vote  at  the  regular  annual  school  election  held  on  the 
afternoon  of  the  first  Saturday  in  March.  After  extending  good 
wishes  Mr.  Johnson,  who  is  the  retiring  member  of  the  old  Board, 
withdrew  leaving  the  new  members  in  executive  session. 

A  motion  was  made  by  Mr.  Simms  that  Mr.  Redfield,  the  senior 
member  of  the  Board,  be  chosen  as  Chairman  for  the  year.  It  was 
seconded  by  Mr.  Andrews,  who  put  the  question  and  declared  Mr. 
Redfield  duly  elected.  Mr.  Simms  then  placed  Mr.  Andrews  in 
nomination  for  School  Clerk,  explaining  that  he  had  examined  the 
records  of  the  past  year  and  found  them  so  satisfactorily  kept  that 
it  would  be  a  great  advantage  to  continue  the  present  Clerk  for 
another  year.  The  Chairman  declared  himself  to  be  in  hearty  ac- 
cord, and  closed  the  matter  by  declaring  Mr.  Andrews  the  choice 
of  the  Board  for  this  office. 

The  Chairman  forthwith  stated  that  the  Board  was  duly  or- 
ganized and  ready  for  the  transaction  of  business.  By  common 
consent  the  Board  agreed  first  to  sit  as  a  council  deciding  upon 
regular  policies  to  be  followed  through  the  year.  After  an  hour's 
consideration  the  Clerk  was  asked  to  set  forth  the  complete  item- 
ized plan  as  it  had  been  worked  out  in  council. 

The  Working  Basis: 

Four  regular  meetings  will  be  held  during  the  year,  the  time  of 
same  being  Saturday  afternoon  of  the  first  Saturday  of  the  months 
of  April,  July,  October,  and  January.  Special  meetings  may  be 
called  by  the  Chairman  or  at  the  request  of  the  majority  of  the 
Board.  In  either  case  the  "call  notice"  shall  explain  the  reason 
for  such  meeting,  and  name  items  of  business  to  be  transacted.  All 
regular  meetings  shall  be  held  at  the  schoolhouse,  and  also  all 
special  meetings,  unless  otherwise  stated  in  the  "call  notice." 

No  official  business  shall  be  transacted  except  at  a  meeting  with 
a  majority  of  the  membership  participating. 

No  member  shall  give  his  individual  consent  to  a  business  trans- 
action, or  make  any  official  agreement  with  any  party  or  parties, 
except  in  Board  session  when  a  majority  of  the  members  are  pres- 
ent. The  Clerk  of  the  Board  shall  be  paid  $.'50.00  per  year  for  his 
work  in  keeping  the  minutes  and  the  regular  official  records.  In 
addition  to  tliis  he  shall  be  paid  *;5.<IO  per  day  for  time  spent  in 
transacting  other  business  for  the  Board. 


28      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

In  the  choice  of  teachers  the  unanimous  approval  of  the  Board 
shall  be  required.  Personal  interviews  will  be  expected  of  appli- 
cants whenever  possible.  Personal  letters  written  by  those  quali- 
fied to  judge  will  be  used  as  means  of  investigation. 

The  "budget"  plan  will  be  followed  in  providing  the  necessary 
revenue  and  in  passing  upon  items  of  expense. 

For  the  consideration  of  improvements,  for  buildings,  and  for 
school  premises,  which  involves  an  expense  in  addition  to  the 
annual  revenue,  the  people  of  the  district  will  be  called  in  special 
meeting,  at  which  time  plans  and  details  will  be  explained  and  the 
sentiment  of  the  people  thus  secured. 

The  minutes  of  each  meeting  must  clearly  set  forth  the  items  of 
business  transaction,  and  shall  record  the  vote  on  each  if  not  unan- 
imously carried.  Approval  must  be  given  to  the  minutes  before 
each  adjournment  unless  unanimously  agreed  to  otherwise  by  the 
Board. 

By  unanimous  consent  the  plan  was  adopted  as  a  working  basis 
for  the  year. 

At  4.30  P.M.  the  minutes  of  the  meeting  were  read  by  the  Clerk 
and  approved. 

Adjournment  without  motion. 

WILLIAM  ANDREWS 

Clerk 
JOHN  REDFIELD 

Chairman 

All  meetings  of  the  Board  should  be  so  conducted  that  due 
consideration  may  be  given  for  each  item  of  business.  Some 
things  are  of  such  great  importance  that  it  is  well  to  call  a 
special  meeting  for  the  purpose  of  considering  a  single  prop- 
osition. As  example  of  this  I  would  cite  the  employment 
of  teachers,  and  the  making  of  the  yearly  budget.  The  for- 
mer requires  the  most  careful  consideration,  while  the  latter 
requires  accuracy  in  detail  of  all  of  the  items  of  expense 
necessary  to  provide  for  school  maintenance  on  a  good 
basis.  It  is  of  great  advantage  to  have  teachers  apply  in 
person,  as  this  gives  the  Board  a  much  better  opportunity 
to  talk  over  plans  with  them  and  to  go  into  details  concern- 


WORK  OF  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  29 

ing  qualifications  and  general  requirements.  No  teacher 
should  ever  be  employed  upon  recommendations  written 
"To  WHOM  IT  MAY  CONCERN,"  and  sometimes  carried  about 
for  a  number  of  years,  without  dates  attached  and  without 
any  positive  statements  concerning  important  qualifications 
which  a  teacher  must  possess,  and  many  times  without  any 
personal  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  writer  pertaining  to 
such  qualifications.  Written  information,  to  be  of  value, 
must  be  personal  in  character.  It  must  be  received  in  offi- 
cial confidence  and  used  only  in  connection  with  the  merits 
of  the  case  in  question.  Since  the  teacher  becomes  the  per- 
sonal directing  element  of  the  school,  it  becomes  very  neces- 
sary to  use  the  greatest  care  in  making  this  choice.  Time  is 
required  for  such  work,  and  a  meeting  set  aside  for  the  pur- 
pose is  of  great  advantage.  The  budget  becomes  the  work- 
ing finance  for  the  year,  hence  no  item  of  expense  can  be 
overlooked  at  the  time  final  approval  is  given.  Each  item, 
too,  must  be  accurately  estimated  in  order  to  prevent  later 
embarrassment.  If  one  item  is  placed  too  high  it  is  likely 
to  handicap  the  whole  scheme.  If  too  low  it  may  prevent 
the  best  development  of  necessary  work.  The  value,  then,  of 
the  budget  plan  as  a  working  basis  depends  upon  its  accu- 
racy and  well-balanced  division  of  funds.  It  ought  to  insure 
wiser  expenditure  and  serve  as  a  guarantee  that  the  general 
outlay  will  be  kept  within  financial  limitations. 

It  is  of  advantage  for  the  Board  to  appoint  one  member  as 
purchasing  agent,  and  to  require  the  voucher  plan  to  be  fol- 
lowed in  this  connection.  This  centers  responsibility  and 
enables  the  teachers  to  know  where  to  go  to  make  request 
for  school  supplies.  It  proves  economy  in  time  in  keeping 
accounts,  because  the  purchasing  agent  can  present  his 
vouchers  to  be  audited  in  accordance  with  the  plan  agreed 
upon.  It  is  of  advantage  to  have  the  Clerk  act  as  purchas- 
ing agent  since  he  has  charge  of  all  other  records  and  his 


30      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

purchases  may  be  more  easily  kept  in  harmony  with  the 
budget  adopted,  and  the  transactions  made  a  part  of  the 
official  records.  The  Auditing  Committee  of  the  Board 
should  be  composed  of  members  not  including  the  pur- 
chasing agent.  During  the  time  of  year  when  the  school  is 
in  session  supplies  are  more  frequently  purchased,  and  it  is 
well  to  have  a  monthly  auditing  if  this  is  possible  in  order 
that  all  bills  may  be  met  promptly.  This  may  be  done  in 
the  evening  at  one  of  the  homes  if  such  a  plan  is  first  agreed 
upon. 

A  policy  should  be  formulated  concerning  the  use  of  the 
schoolhouse  for  social  and  religious  purposes.  In  many  of 
the  States  the  School  Code  provides  for  this  in  a  general 
way,  but  even  then  a  local  policy  is  necessary  in  order  to 
make  the  schoolhouse  serve  as  a  social-center  meeting  place 
for  the  neighborhood.  In  order  to  stimulate  interest,  the 
Board  of  Trustees  should  appoint  a  committee,  the  chair- 
man of  which  may  be  one  of  its  members,  to  encourage  and 
direct  the  social  activities  of  the  community.  Special  en- 
tertainments should  be  arranged  for  by  and  with  the  cooper- 
ation of  the  school,  and  special  lectures  should  be  procured 
whenever  possible  in  order  to  provide  a  varied  program.  At 
least  two  kinds  of  evening  programs  should  be  included  in 
the  annual  plan.  One  should  be  of  the  entertaining  type 
and  of  such  a  character  as  to  interest  both  adults  and  chil- 
dren. The  other  should  be  instructive  and  educational  in 
character,  but  should  represent  only  practical  live  themes  of 
personal  interest  to  all  the  people.  Other  forms  of  enter- 
tainment, varied  according  to  the  tastes  of  the  people,  should 
be  provided,  such  as  a  good  musical,  a  home-talent  play, 
a  dramatic  reading,  a  moving-picture  program,  or  a  well 
prepared  debate.  In  each  case,  the  entertainment  provided 
should  be  stimulating  in  character  and  represent  worthy 
ideals.  No  sentimental  or  morally  questionable  entertain- 


WORK  OF  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  31 

ment  should  ever  be  permitted.  In  connection  with  all  of 
these  evening  gatherings,  an  opportunity  should  be  given 
for  an  exchange  of  greetings  and  for  social  intercourse. 

If  there  is  no  church  building  near  at  hand  the  school- 
house  should  be  used  as  a  place  of  worship  on  Sunday. 
Such  a  meeting  need  not  be  denominational,  but  it  should 
offer  an  opportunity  for  spiritual  fellowship.  The  Sunday- 
School  organization  and  the  church  service  are  necessary 
organizations  for  the  development  of  man's  spiritual  nature, 
which  is  one  of  the  three  recognized  elements  in  the  com- 
plete, well-balanced  human  being.  By  using  the  school 
building  for  this  purpose  neighborhood  economy  is  con- 
served. Under  all  circumstances,  however,  the  school  prop- 
erty should  be  carefully  cared  for,  and  the  buildings  re- 
spected and  kept  in  a  cleanly  condition.  At  the  close  of  the 
school  year  all  buildings  should  be  carefully  inspected  and 
apparatus  thoroughly  examined,  in  order  to  determine  what 
improvements  should  be  made  during  the  vacation  period. 
This  inspection  can  be  made  to  advantage  during  the  last 
week  of  school,  when  the  teacher  is  present  to  give  sugges- 
tions and  assist  the  officers  of  the  Board  by  pointing  out  any 
necessary  changes  or  repairs  needed. 

Sufficient  time  should  be  given  for  a  careful  examination 
of  the  heating  and  ventilating  apparatus,  and  notations 
should  be  made  concerning  numerous  small  items,  such 
as  condition  of  blackboard,  window  shades,  interior  decora- 
tion, tinting  and  painting,  etc.  Special  attention  should  be 
given  to  coat  rooms,  drinking  fountains,  doormats,  and  foot 
scrapers. 

If  outhouses  are  used,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to 
their  sanitary  consideration,  and  an  examination  frequently 
made  of  the  vault.  The  shield,  which  is  necessary  to  whole- 
some conditions,  should  be  kept  in  the  best  repair  and  well 
painted.  When  a  fence  is  used  about  the  grounds  this, 


32      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

too,  should  be  kept  well  painted  in  an  attractive  manner. 
It  should  be  provided  with  a  good  gate  or  stile  at  the  place 
of  entrance.  Condition  of  school  ground,  apparatus,  flower- 
beds, and  property  walks  should  be  noted.  A  detailed  re- 
port of  this  investigation  should  be  made  by  the  Clerk  and 
entered  as  a  part  of  the  records,  together  with  official  actions 
taken  therewith. 

It  is  well  to  have  the  Board  make  another  inspection  visit 
just  before  the  opening  of  the  school  for  the  fall  term. 
Whatever  improvements  have  been  authorized  may  at  this 
time  be  approved  and  audited.  A  complete  renovation  and 
cleaning  of  all  buildings  should  be  made  by  the  janitor,  if 
one  is  provided.  If  not  provided,  other  means  should  be 
arranged  for  this  work  before  the  school  is  called  into  session. 
By  so  doing  it  is  possible  to  give  the  teacher  a  more  whole- 
some reception  at  the  beginning,  which  is  always  advan- 
tageous to  good  school  organization. 

During  the  school  months  the  officers  of  the  district 
should  visit  the  school  and  encourage  the  fathers  and  moth- 
ers to  do  likewise.  If  time  is  an  element,  they  may  choose 
some  stormy  day  and  take  with  them  their  lunches.  This 
will  afford  an  opportunity  to  join  the  children  in  lessons  and 
in  the  activities  arranged  for.  It  will  offer  an  opportunity 
for  a  longer  visit,  which  will  allow  a  more  complete  investi- 
gation of  the  entire  day's  working  plan.  School  officers  as 
well  as  patrons  could  perhaps  gain  some  new  ideas  concern- 
ing school  work  if  they  would  sit  in  the  class  and  join  in  the 
regular  recitations.  They  should  of  course  keep  well  in 
mind  the  fact  that  methods  of  instruction  have  materially 
changed  in  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  they  were  chil- 
dren in  school.  They  may  be  able  to  judge  wisely  concern- 
ing the  merits  of  the  plans  used  by  the  teacher  only  in  so  far 
as  they  are  able  to  see  results  and  catch  the  spirit  of  interest 
that  pervades  class  work.  If  good  judgment  is  used  in  the 


WORK  OF  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  33 

summary  of  the  day's  events  such  a  meeting  will  prove  most 
valuable  to  school  progress.  If  suggestions  are  to  be  made 
to  the  teacher  this  should  always  be  done  in  private.  Such 
suggestions  should  always  be  constructive  in  character  in 
order  to  be  fruitful.  School  officers  should  make  any  com- 
plaints directly  to  the  teacher,  and  should  never  permit 
themselves  to  gossip  about  the  school  or  criticize  in  a  de- 
structive way.  Patrons,  too,  should  be  encouraged  to  fol- 
low this  example  in  all  of  their  dealings  with  the  school,  and 
by  so  doing  efficiency  will  be  increased  and  cooperation 
strengthened  in  making  the  school  meet  its  highest  obli- 
gations. 

School  spirit  of  the  right  sort  is  advantageous  in  the  pro- 
motion of  better  things,  and  it  is  quite  worth  while  that  the 
patrons  encourage  their  children  in  that  spirit  of  youth 
which  grows  into  an  organized  influence  for  the  execution 
of  highest  efforts.  Leadership  is  a  desirable  characteristic, 
and  it  is  well  to  encourage  wholesome  means  of  personal 
development  both  in  school  and  out.  To  do  this  best,  wise 
guidance  is  necessary.  Original  thinking  must  be  encour- 
aged and  personal  freedom  given  in  measure  suited  to  the 
child's  temperament  and  age  development.  Responsibility 
wisely  placed  offers  the  best  incentive  for  personal  improve- 
ment. This  applies  to  children  in  the  same  measure  that  it 
affects  adult  life.  These  things  should  always  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  the  organization  of  the  school,  and  in  pro- 
viding whatever  means  seems  necessary  for  its  complete 
functioning  with  life's  highest  and  best  needs. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  advantage  is  there  in  transacting  all  business  at  a  regular  or 
special  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Trustees? 

2.  What  is  the  prime  difference  between  a  regular  and  a  special  meeting? 

3.  What  official  acts  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  should  require  unani- 
mous approval? 


34      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

4.  Is  it  an  advantage  to  make  all  official  acts  unanimous,  when  such  acts 
have  been  finally  decided  by  a  majority  vote? 

5.  Should  school  buildings  be  considered  community  property,  and  as 
such  be  used  for  community  activities,  in  accordance  with  rules  and 
regulations  made  by  the  Board  of  Trustees? 

6.  How  can  we  best  secure  good  inspection  of  school  property? 

7.  In  what  ways  can  we  best  interest  the  patrons  of  the  school  in  making 
the  school  proper  the  social  center  for  all  community  activities? 


CHAPTER  V 
RESOURCES  AND  FINANCES 

EACH  of  the  States  has  provided  by  law  its  own  individual 
plan  for  financing  school  work.  There  are,  however,  some 
general  basic  principles  for  securing  school  revenue  which 
have  been  generally  adopted  by  many  of  the  States.  In 
illustration  of  this  may  be  cited  the  fully  demonstrated  fact 
that  large  units  of  territory  prove  more  satisfactory  to  school 
financing  than  do  small  ones.  In  our  early  development 
education  was  looked  upon  as  a  family  obligation.  A  little 
later  the  organized  district  was  made  to  assume  this  obli- 
gation by  a  local  tax  levy  for  school  maintenance.  Soon 
it  was  discovered  that,  since  district  valuation  varied  so 
greatly,  this  plan  did  not  equitably  meet  the  financial  re- 
quirements. A  district  with  one  half  the  valuation  was 
often  required  to  maintain  a  school  for  a  larger  number  of 
children,  and  thus  meet  a  very  much  larger  financial  obliga- 
tion than  another  and  wealthier  district  lying  immediately 
adjacent  to  it.  The  remedy  for  such  discrepancies  de- 
manded a  larger  unit  for  taxation  for  educational  purposes 
and  an  equitable  distribution  of  such  taxes.  The  county  or 
the  State  was  then  made  the  unit. 

Since  the  State  has  been  recognized  as  the  unit  of  school 
organization  through  the  adopted  constitution,  and  since 
the  National  Government  has  further  recognized  this  prin- 
ciple of  the  large  unit  by  providing  subsidies  to  the  different 
States  for  educational  encouragement,  the  real  responsibil- 
ity, therefore,  has  been  placed  upon  the  State  to  see  that  all 
revenues  for  general  maintenance  be  distributed  equitably. 
Equitable  distribution  in  this  case  does  not  mean  giving 


36      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

every  school  district  an  equal  amount,  but  it  does  mean  giv- 
ing the  children  of  the  different  districts  equal  educational 
advantages  in  as  far  as  this  is  possible.  The  State  by  this 
means  assumes  a  larger  responsibility  for  the  school,  and 
gives  evidence  that  it  believes  in  the  necessity  of  developing 
all  of  its  citizens  to  the  highest  degree,  and  of  making  all  of 
them  useful,  self-supporting,  and  happy.  The  family  and 
the  local  district  are  thus  relieved  of  responsibilities  they  are 
unable  to  assume,  and  education  is  really  made  the  business 
of  the  State. 

The  complete  justice  of  this  system  is  clearly  seen  when 
we  remember  that  the  wealth  within  a  State  is  never  evenly 
distributed,  and  that  local  taxation  gives  some  communities 
an  abundance  of  funds  while  the  revenue  of  others  is  too 
small  to  provide  the  necessities.  Railroad  lines  extending 
across  the  State  draw  support  from  long  distances  on  either 
side;  but  local  taxation  gives  an  advantage  only  to  the  dis- 
tricts through  which  these  lines  pass.  Yet  there  is  every 
reason  why  such  taxable  wealth  should  assist  equally  all  of 
its  patrons.  The  same  law  applies  to  telephone  and  tele- 
graph lines,  and  to  all  other  public  service  corporations. 
When  all  of  the  wealth  of  the  entire  State  is  held  equitably 
responsible  for  providing  revenue  for  education,  it  becomes 
comparatively  easy  to  secure  the  necessary  amount.  The 
State  can  know  no  distinction  in  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
its  citizens,  and  it  is  therefore  obligated  to  allow  no  differ- 
ence to  exist  in  their  care  and  protection. 

In  some  of  the  States  the  county  has  been  made  the  unit 
for  revenue  purposes,  or  there  may  be  a  combination  of 
county  and  state  responsibility.  Of  course,  the  county  unit 
is  much  more  preferable  than  the  local  unit,  and  may  pro- 
vide for  proper  distribution  within  its  limits.  In  many  of 
the  Middle  West  and  far  Western  States  the  counties  are 
large  enough  to  make  the  county  plan  reasonably  satisfac- 


RESOURCES  AND  FINANCES  37 

tory;  but  even  in  these  cases  it  can  be  shown  to  be  inequi- 
table because  some  counties  of  a  single  State  may  be  well 
developed,  and  possess  great  wealth;  while  other  counties 
are  still  new,  undeveloped,  and  possess  little  means  of  reve- 
nue. The  pioneer  is  opening  the  way  for  a  richer  civiliza- 
tion; the  isolated  family  in  the  new  community  is  extending 
the  border  line  for  the  State's  greater  development;  and  the 
children  of  both  the  settled  and  the  pioneer  community 
must  be  given  their  heritage  by  the  State.  Within  its  ter- 
ritory' yet  unorganized,  and  within  its  counties  not  fully  self- 
supporting  the  duty  of  the  State  is,  clearly,  to  hold  out  the 
helping  hand  and  guarantee  the  necessary  protection.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  a  unit  of  territory  even  as  large  as 
the  county  will  not  properly  suffice  to  meet  all  conditions. 

Local  district  taxation  still  exists  in  a  very  large  number 
of  the  States  having  a  larger  unit  plan,  to  the  extent  that 
supplementary  revenue  is  raised  in  this  manner.  In  some 
instances  this  system  has  been  retained  at  the  request  of  the 
people,  who  have  not  made  sufficient  investigation  to  under- 
stand its  handicap.  Such  requests,  too,  have  come  largely 
from  wealthy  communities  which  have  all  the  necessary 
means  of  self-support.  It  does  have  the  advantage  of  allow- 
ing the  progressive  community  to  tax  itself  to  provide  addi- 
tional facilities  over  and  above  that  which  the  State  and  the 
county  may  provide;  but  its  value  ends  there. 

It  may  be  said  without  hesitation  that  the  trend  is  toward 
the  larger  units.  States  not  having  adopted  this  means  are 
investigating  the  effect  it  has  had  upon  those  using  it,  while 
some  are  trying  it  in  modified  form  and  hope  to  extend  it  as 
soon  as  greater  efficiency  is  shown  by  its  use. 

The  Federal  Government  has  discovered  that  many  of  the 
States  are  unable  to  offer  the  best  educational  advantages. 
It  has  found  through  investigation  that  per  capita  wealth  in 
one  State  may  be  less  than  twenty -five  per  cent  of  that  in 


38      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

another.  It  is  evident,  too,  that  the  wealth  in  some  of  the 
States  never  can  be  increased  sufficiently  to  become  equal 
to  that  of  others.  Some  States  are  provided  with  good 
school  buildings,  with  modern  school  furniture  and  appara- 
tus, have  high  educational  standards,  and  have  made  provi- 
sions for  efficient  well-trained  teachers.  Other  States  find  it 
impossible  to  provide  for  more  than  five  or  six  months  of 
school,  and  even  that  under  the  direction  of  teachers  who 
have  not  had  the  advantages  of  special  training.  To  obviate 
these  inequalities  existing  within  the  several  States,  the  Na- 
tional Government  has  been  urged  to  appropriate  a  large 
sum  of  money  to  further  equalize  common  school  advan- 
tages. Such  a  sum  should  total  many  millions  of  dollars  be- 
cause adequate  returns  would  be  forthcoming  only  from  a 
large  expenditure.  It  ought  to  be  divided  in  a  manner  to 
stimulate  different  phases  of  elementary  educational  devel- 
opment. It  surely  will  be  divided  in  a  way  to  insure  for  all 
of  the  States  advantages  more  nearly  equal.  Education  has 
fully  demonstrated  its  great  worth  to  the  country  during  the 
recent  World  War,  and  this  is  a  good  time  for  our  National 
Congress  to  provide  the  means  for  making  it  a  greater  na- 
tional asset.  National  interest  has  often  been  expressed  in 
a  positive  way,  and  public  sentiment  is  ready  to  give  such  a 
measure  general  approval. 

The  general  custom  of  all  of  the  States  has  been  to  require 
the  local  community  to  provide  buildings,  building  sites,  and 
the  initial  equipment.  Bonding  has  been  one  of  the  neces- 
sary means  used  by  the  district  to  secure  immediate  funds, 
but  the  expense  incident  to  bonding  makes  the  method  ex- 
pensive. The  School  Code  usually  sets  forth  the  plan  of 
procedure  in  brief  form,  and  any  additional  information 
can  usually  be  procured  from  the  County  School  Superin- 
tendent. Universally  a  two-thirds  vote  is  required  to  legal- 
ize a  bond  issue.  The  notice  calling  for  such  an  election 


RESOURCES  AND  FINANCES  39 

must  clearly  set  forth  the  purposes  for  which  the  money  is  to 
be  used,  and  the  full  amount  to  be  approved  by  the  voters. 
It  should  set  forth  the  plan  of  payment,  the  time  bonds  are 
to  run,  the  options  required,  and  the  lawful  rate  of  interest 
permitted.  This  notice  should  be  made  in  triplicate  and 
posted  in  public  places,  one  copy  being  posted  at  or  on 
the  school  premises.  Beside  this  the  local  paper  should  be 
used  for  announcements,  and  all  possible  means  should  be 
employed  to  bring  the  matter  to  the  attention  of  all  the 
people.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  call  a  mass  meeting  for 
the  purpose  of  discussion  and  explanation.  This  insures  a 
clearer  understanding  of  the  needs  for  such  a  bond  issue,  and 
creates  a  greater  interest  in  this  neighborhood  movement. 
\Yhile  the  school  directors  may  arbitrarily  call  a  bond  elec- 
tion at  any  time,  it  is  far  better  for  them  to  take  the  people 
into  their  confidence  and  thus  crystallize  public  sentiment  in 
favor  of  a  worthy  and  necessary  expenditure.  Failure  to  do 
this  often  causes  inaction,  and  may  through  lack  of  intelli- 
gent understanding  create  strife  and  factional  feeling. 

Bonds  should  never  run  for  more  than  twenty  years,  be- 
cause a  longer  time  shifts  the  responsibility  of  payment  to 
the  next  generation.  Neither  is  a  longer  period  good  eco- 
nomics nor  good  finance,  because  interest,  even  at  a  low 
rate,  soon  amounts  to  a  sum  as  great  as  the  original  issue. 
No  bonds  should  be  accepted  without  an  optional  clause 
permitting  payment  of  any  reasonable  portion  after  three 
years.  It  is  sometimes  an  advantage  to  make  this  optional 
clause  read  "after  one  year,"  but  most  districts  will  find  it 
impossible  to  meet  all  of  the  necessary  financial  adjustments 
before  three  years  have  elapsed.  Moreover,  if  a  district  levy 
is  made,  it  takes  a  year  before  collection  is  realized;  so  all 
estimates  depending  upon  a  tax  must  be  based  on  collection 
a  year  hence. 

In  order  to  finance  well,  the  School  Board  must  be  familiar 


40      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

with  all  of  the  different  sources  of  income  and  means  for 
securing  revenue.  It  must  be  able  to  estimate  accurately 
the  amount  due  from  each  source  provided  by  law.  It 
should  be  able  to  estimate  the  local  levy  necessary  to  supple- 
ment that  which  is  otherwise  provided,  so  that  all  financial 
demands  may  be  met  promptly  by  the  district.  One  of  the 
best  means  of  determining  financial  needs  is  to  follow  the 
budget  plan.  The  following  will  serve  as  a  suggestion  to  any 
district  needing  a  good  working  budget: 

ANNUAL  BUDGET  OF  SCHOOL  DISTRICT  NUMBER  TWENTY-EIGHT,  GRAN- 
VILLE  COUNTY,  WASHINGTON,  FOR  THE  SCHOOL  YEAR  BEGINNING 
JULY  FIRST,  1917,  AND  ENDING  JUNE  THIRTIETH,  1918 

For  instruction  (Payment  of  teachers) $1,800.00 

Janitor  hire 180.00 

School  supplies 270.00 

Needed  apparatus 50.00 

Textbooks  (Teacher's  estimate) 228.00 

Fuel  (By  contract) 260.00 

New  furniture  (Request  of  teacher) 32.00 

Clerk's  allowance  (Payment  for  services) 40.00 

Traveling  expenses  (Attending  directors'  meeting) 20.00 

Incidentals 120.00 

Total $3,000.00 

Resources 

Estimate  State  apportionment $1,320.00 

Estimate  County  apportionment , 1,256.00 

Amount  to  be  raised  by  local  taxation 424.00 

Valuation  of  district •. 212,000.00 

Necessary  levy  —  two  mills. 

This  plan  may  be  altered  or  changed  to  suit  the  needs  of 
any  district.  If  there  be  bonded  indebtedness,  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  provide  the  amount  needed  to  pay  the  interest  and 
to  set  aside  a  sinking  fund.  Necessary  painting  or  calcimin- 
ingcan  be  listed  under  "Upkeep  of  Buildings."  By  so  doing 
the  Board  can  easily  keep  within  the  allowance,  and  at  the 
same  time  provide  for  all  expenditures  in  a  businesslike  way. 


RESOURCES  AND  FINANCES  41 

Such  an  organized  plan  may  be  submitted  to  the  people 
for  their  approval,  or  for  their  suggestions.  Or  it  may  be 
well  to  post  a  copy  in  the  schoolhouse  for  the  inspection  of 
patrons  who  would  like  to  know  just  how  the  money  is  to 
be  used;  for  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  the  patrons  of  the 
district  become  familiar  with  the  financial  plan  which  the 
School  Board  has  adopted  for  the  year.  It  is  also  a  decided 
advantage  to  keep  the  organization  on  a  cash  basis,  because 
the  taxpayers  of  the  community  will  appreciate  a  business 
management  which  will  insure  wise  expenditure.  The 
amounts  indicated  in  each  case  do  not  necessarily  mean  that 
every  dollar  should  be  spent  for  that  purpose.  Rather  they 
place  a  limit  upon  the  amount  that  can  be  spent  for  a  specific 
purpose.  Should  a  surplus  exist  in  any  one  or  all  of  the 
listed  items,  it  may  well  be  carried  over  into  the  next  year's 
plan  and  taken  into  consideration  in  making  the  new  budget. 
It  is  well,  however,  to  make  the  estimate  so  close  that  a 
large  amount  will  not  be  carried  over,  because  close,  accurate 
estimates  mean  good  financing. 

In  paying  all  bills  the  voucher  plan  should  be  followed, 
and  a  carbon  copy  taken  of  the  complete  itemized  statement, 
with  the  Board's  approval  and  the  necessary  signature  at- 
tached. For  this  purpose  a  blank-book  form  may  be  pro- 
cured, having  in  it  two  colors  of  paper,  one  for  the  carbon 
copy  to  be  retained,  the  other  to  be  sent  to  the  treasurer, 
who  is  to  draw  the  warrant  in  payment.  If  the  colored 
sheets  of  paper  be  arranged  in  the  book  alternately,  it  will 
add  much  to  convenience,  and  the  retained  carbon  copy  will 
insure  an  accurate  detailed  accounting  of  expenditures. 
From  these  carbon  copies  it  is  easy  to  make  a  complete  bal- 
ance sheet  of  finances  and  thus  to  determine  just  what 
amount  remains  in  the  aggregate,  and  also  the  amount  re- 
maining to  the  credit  of  each  subdivision. 

Well-kept  records  are  not  only  desirable,  but  essential  to 


42      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

the  retention  of  the  people's  confidence.  Every  business 
officer,  furthermore,  is  entitled  to  have  all  of  his  official  acts 
approved  when  they  are  recorded  in  a  manner  to  be  under- 
stood. Public  records  should  likewise  always  be  subjected 
to  examination  and  inspection  by  the  people  whom  the 
school  officers  serve.  This  is  doubly  important  when  those 
records  have  to  do  with  finances. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  fundamental  principles  forming  the  basis  of  good 
financing? 

2.  How  can  such  a  system  be  administered  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
general  public? 

3.  Is  there  any  special  advantage  in  examining  the  levies  enumerated 
on  the  back  of  your  tax  receipt  to  find  out  how  much  you  are  spending 
for  educational  purposes? 

4.  Would  it  be  right,  and  would  it  be  advantageous  for  parents  of  chil- 
dren to  provide  all  the  finances  necessary  for  their  education? 

5.  What  percentage  of  value  does  it  add  to  real  estate  to  have  a  high- 
grade  public  school  near  at  hand? 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  SCHOOL  SITE 

THE  School  Code  of  each  State  usually  sets  forth  a  plan  for 
all  of  the  most  important  official  acts  of  a  Board  of  School 
Trustees.  One  of  the  first  matters  to  be  attended  to  in 
organizing  a  new  school  district  is  the  selection  of  the  school 
site.  In  most  States  the  law  requires  the  school  site  to  be 
chosen  by  the  people.  In  some  instances  a  two-thirds  ma- 
jority is  required  for  such  a  choice,  while  in  other  cases  the 
majority  vote  is  necessary  in  locating  for  the  first  time  all 
school  property.  Almost  without  exception  the  States  re- 
quire a  two-thirds  majority  vote  to  change  a  site  which  has 
been  selected  by  the  people,  and  on  which  buildings  have 
been  erected  at  public  expense.  There  are  a  number  of  im- 
portant points  to  be  considered  when  selecting  a  school  site, 
and  of  equal  importance  is  it  to  make  school  premises,  al- 
ready located,  attractive  and  sanitary. 

If  a  site  is  to  be  chosen  for  a  new  district,  it  is  always  well 
to  lay  out  the  boundary  carefully  and  to  indicate  the  road- 
ways and  the  streams,  if  there  be  any.  The  first  is  impor- 
tant for  determining  traveling  facilities  and  distances,  the 
second  for  determining  safe  bridge-crossings  during  high- 
water  seasons.  With  these  things  accurately  placed  upon  a 
map,  it  ought  not  to  be  difficult  to  determine  upon  advan- 
tageous places  for  schoolhouse  location.  All  other  things 
being  equal,  it  is  best  to  have  a  schoolhouse  situated  near 
the  center  of  the  district,  but  it  is  always  necessary  to  place 
it  near  the  most  important  highways.  This  location  should 
never  be  chosen  with  any  other  object  in  mind  than  that  of 
the  children's  best  interests.  It  should  be  remembered  that 


44      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

each  child  of  the  district  must  travel  to  and  from  the  build- 
ing each  day  during  the  school  season,  and  it  should  be 
placed  where  equitable  advantages  may  be  offered  to  all  the 
families  concerned,  in  so  far  as  this- is  possible.  No  personal 
contention  should  ever  be  considered. 

So  important  is  it  to  have  good  sanitary  conditions  sur- 
rounding school  buildings  that  this  item  must  be  made  one 
of  first  importance.  Good  health  is  necessary  to  mental 
progress  as  well  as  to  the  general  comfort  of  the  individual. 
So  this  ought  to  be  taken  into  consideration  when  buildings 
are  located.  If  possible  a  spot  should  be  chosen  somewhat 
elevated  where  drainage  will  be  good,  and  where  no  seepage 
can  contaminate  the  premises.  Sunshine  is  indispensable, 
both  because  of  its  cleansing  qualities  and  the  cheer  it  gives. 
But  a  barren  windy  hill  should  be  avoided  just  as  carefully 
as  a  location  within  a  deep  shady  glen  or  upon  a  low  flat 
valley.  Local  climatic  conditions  should  always  be  taken 
into  consideration  because  this  may  entirely  alter  the  sit- 
uation. 

Too  many  times  do  we  find  school  buildings  located  upon 
a  rocky  ledge  or  upon  a  barren  spot  which  has  been  donated 
to  the  district  because  of  its  worthlessness.  Such  a  location 
is  sure  to  become  an  expensive  asset  to  the  district  even  if  it 
costs  nothing  in  the  beginning.  It  should  be  said,  however, 
that  such  sites  have  usually  been  accepted  only  when  the 
financial  condition  made  anything  else  impossible.  Under 
these  circumstances  such  a  choice  may  be  permissible.  But 
even  then  in  the  end  it  is  likely  to  prove  a  great  disadvan- 
tage if  not  a  business  liability.  When  once  a  site  has  been 
chosen,  buildings  erected,  and  general  improvements  made, 
it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  make  a  change  because  of  the  added 
expense.  This  alone  is  sufficient  cause  to  urge  the  necessity 
of  making  a  wise  choice  in  the  beginning  and  thus  have  the 
matter  settled  for  all  time. 


THE  SCHOOL  SITE 


45 


In  order  to  make  attractive  school  grounds,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  deep 
rich  soil  where 
flowers,  shrubs, 
and  trees  may 
be    propagated     in 
abundance.        Too 
long  have  we  per- 
mitted   our   school 
homes  to  stand  on 
a  bleak  spot,  unin- 
viting   and     unat- 
tractive.   Too  long 
have  we  considered 
education  as  some- 
thing growing   out 
of    textbooks    and 
school    recitations, 
and  existing  wholly 
within  the  school- 
room       activities. 
Too  long  have  wre 
ignored     the     fact 
that  j)ersonal  inter- 
est on  the  part  of 
the  child  is  of  first 
importance    in   his 
development,    and 
that  his  interest  in 
the  school   can  be 
increased  by  adding 
attractiveness  with- 


-,iit  tr. 


A  BETTER  TYPE  OF  SCHOOL  SITE 

This  site  was  laid  out  for  the  trustees  by  an  expert  from  the 
State  Agricultural  College,  and  the  numbers  refer  to  a  plant- 
ing plan  prepared  for  the  trustees. 


46      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

The  size  of  the  school  site  should  depend  upon  the  number 
of  rooms  represented  by  the  school  and  the  number  of  chil- 
dren who  attend.  In  rural  communities  the  average-sized 
district  represents  from  one  to  two  acres.  Such  an  acreage 
is  almost  too  small  when  considered  in  connection  with 
modern  educational  facilities.  School  gardening  and  agri- 
cultural experimentation  also  need  proper  space  and  soil. 
The  vital  needs  of  country  life  ought  not  to  be  neglected,  as 
they  must  of  necessity  be  when  the  school  site  is  small  in 
size  and  rocky  or  sterile  in  kind.  A  plat  of  sufficient  size  is 
necessary,  too,  to  good  wholesome  school  activities,  since  all 
children  should  be  encouraged  to  participate  in  play  and  in 
the  physical  games  during  the  recess  periods.  This  is  nec- 
essary to  good  school  discipline  and  to  mental  concentration 
during  the  working  hours.  Ball,  of  the  various  kinds,  is  a 
wholesome  sport  but  requires  considerable  space  in  order  to 
prevent  avoidable  mishaps.  This  field  should  be  placed  on 
one  side  of  the  building,  where  the  flying  ball  will  not  strike 
the  unsuspecting  child  who  is  otherwise  engaged.  The 
allotted  space  should  be  large  enough  to  prevent  the  fly- 
ing ball  from  going  across  into  the  neighbor's  grainfield  or 
meadow.  This  has  often  been  the  cause  of  unwholesome 
contention.  Young  children  choose  different  kinds  of  sport, 
and  so  the  entire  school  grounds  should  be  laid  off  in  a  man- 
ner to  give  the  very  largest  possible  advantages  for  physical 
development.  The  proper  placing  of  buildings  adds  very 
much  to  convenience  and  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  grounds, 
and  should  be  carefully  regarded  in  the  plan.  There  should 
be  a  pla,ce  for  trees  and  shrubs  and  for  flower-beds  too,  and 
the  children  should  be  taught  to  respect  them  properly  and 
to  assist  in  their  propagation.  All  these  should  be  chosen  to 
suit  climatic  conditions,  not  forgetting  that  native  shrubs 
are  just  as  attractive  as  the  nursery-propagated  types  and 
often  prove  more  hardy. 


THE  SCHOOL  SITE  47 

In  many  school  grounds  wild  grass  and  pea  vines  are  the 
only  living  plants,  and  these  grow  only  during  the  most  fa- 
vorable part  of  springtime.  The  whole  scene  outside  the 
building  gives  an  impression  of  desolation.  There  is  nothing 
without  to  inspire  the  children  with  a  desire  to  hold  in  rev- 
erence this  spot  where  so  many  hours  of  their  youth  have 
been  spent.  The  school  can  mean  to  them  only  a  daily 
routine  of  classwork  and  study,  to  which  may  be  added  such 
individual  interest  as  the  teacher  is  able  to  create  through 
her  plan  of  organization.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
child  of  the  country  may  live  very  far  from  mother  Nature's 
richest  treasures  because  of  somebody's  failure  to  make  the 
school  premises  attractive.  He  may  as  well  live  in  a  tene- 
ment in  the  great  city  and  play  on  the  top  of  the  building,  so 
far  as  his  school  life  proves  an  advantage  in  giving  him  an 
impression  of  Nature  herself.  City  school  environments  of  the 
tenement  type  are  deprecated  for  their  cramped  and  un- 
wholesome influence,  and  there  is  every  reason  why  such 
conditions  should  not  be  permitted  under  any  circumstances 
in  the  great,  wide,  open  country. 

If  the  school  plant  is  already  located,  and  in  most  instances 
this  will  be  the  case,  it  then  becomes  necessary  to  make  the 
very  best  of  the  situation  as  it  exists.  If  there  is  trouble 
from  seepage,  drainage  should  be  one  of  the  first  problems 
cared  for.  If  the  school  building  is  located  in  a  thicket,  re- 
move a  sufficient  number  of  the  trees  from  the  south  and  east 
of  the  building  to  permit  sunshine  to  fall  upon  it,  and  shine 
into  it  unhamj)ered.  If  the  location  is  on  a  windy  hill,  plant 
trees  in  a  manner  to  form  a  windbreak,  thus  protecting  the 
buildings  from  the  rude  blasts.  If  the  soil  is  not  fertile,  en- 
rich it  in  the  most  practical  way  at  your  disposal.  If  too 
small,  increase  it  by  purchasing  sufficient  land  adjoining. 
Such  may  usually  be  secured  by  common  agreement,  but 
the  law  provides  for  condemnation  proceedings  in  case  an 


48      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

owner  refuses  to  sell  at  a  reasonable  price  the  amount  of  land 
necessary  to  meet  school  needs.  Remember  finally  that 
every  obstacle  can  be  overcome,  and  must  be  overcome  by 
school  officers  who  desire  to  meet  their  obligation. 

Many  States  have  regular  "Arbor  Days,"  and  this  is  a 
good  time  for  the  people  of  the  neighborhood  to  gather  and 
plant  shrubs  and  trees  on  the  school  premises.  Other  local 
improvements  can  be  made  at  the  same  time  which  will  add 
to  the  general  attractiveness  and  create  a  deeper  interest 
in  the  school.  The  children  should  always  be  called  upon 
to  assist  in  such  work,  for  in  no  other  way  can  they  be  made 
to  feel  the  same  personal  interest  in  it.  A  child  will  never 
destroy  a  tree  planted  by  his  own  hand.  He  will  always 
foster  the  flowers  that  have  grown  from  the  seed  which  he 
brought  from  home.  He  will  always  take  an  interest  in  the 
flower-beds  built  during  his  leisure  moments.  He  will  always 
respect  herbs  which  the  school  organization  has  chosen  and 
propagated.  Therefore,  in  connection  with  all  school  im- 
provement a  sense  of  ownership  as  well  as  a  sense  of  personal 
pride  should  be  instilled  in  the  children  of  the  community. 

When  the  State  purchases  school  property,  it  is  always 
dedicated  to  the  children  of  the  community  whom  the  law 
recognizes  in  practice,  though  the  title  of  trust  must  be  held 
in  the  name  of  the  district  or  the  State.  In  dedicating  this 
to  the  children  there  are  certain  guarantees  which  go  with 
it.  Such  guarantees  offer  privileges  for  educational  advance- 
ment which  all  good  citizens  are  called  upon  to  respect.  The 
local  Board  is  called  upon  to  administer  the  will  of  the  State, 
and  to  this  extent  becomes  the  guardian  of  all  the  neighbor- 
hood's children  of  school  age  and  must  protect  their  educa- 
tional birthright. 

A  scenic  panorama  beyond  the  school  grounds  has  not 
been  urged  because  outlying  landscape  is  almost  always 
beautiful.  Nothing  should  be  more  attractive  than  fields  of 


THE  SCHOOL  SITE  49 

growing  grain,  orchards  laden  with  fruit,  and  pasturelands 
dotted  with  farm  animals.  Nature  usually  endows  any 
spot  in  the  open  country  with  sufficient  beauty  to  make  an 
impressive  scene.  So  this  need  not  be  taken  into  serious 
consideration  in  choosing  a  location,  though  there  is  no  harm 
in  keeping  it  in  mind.  It  is  always  an  advantage  to  have 
children  draw  inspiration  from  their  own  surroundings, 
but  in  a  large  measure  this  must  come  through  the  ability 
of  the  parents  to  recognize  such  things  first,  and  through 
the  interest  the  teacher  may  take  in  making  this  an  effec- 
tive part  of  the  educational  plan  of  the  school. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  principal  points  to  be  taken  into  consideration  when  a 
new  school  site  is  to  be  chosen? 

2.  What  size  should  a  school  site  be  in  order  to  provide  sufficient  play- 
grounds and  school  garden,  so  that  there  will  be  no  encroachment 
upon  the  property  surrounding  the  school  buildings? 

3.  What   educational   advantages   can   come   from   attractive   school 
grounds  laid  off  in  a  manner  to  meet  the  needs  of  all  the  school 
activities? 

4.  Are  the  excuses  which  are  usually  advanced  for  placing  a  schoolhouse 
on  a  bleak,  barren  hill,  or  in  some  other  unattractive  spot,  legitimate? 


CHAPTER  VH 
THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 

SEVERAL  buildings  are  required  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  mod- 
ern school  plant.  All  of  them  need  not  be  built  at  the  same 
time,  but  it  is  advantageous  to  decide  upon  the  general 
scheme  of  location  in  order  to  insure  harmony  and  symmetry 
of  plan  and  arrangement.  For  this  work  it  is  well  to  secure 
the  services  of  a  landscape  gardener,  if  possible,  since  the 
cost  for  such  service  will  not  be  great  and  the  attractiveness 
of  well-planned  school  premises  will  insure  greater  commu- 
nity pride.  In  the  plan,  shrubbery,  trees,  flower-beds,  lawn, 
and  plats  for  playground  and  for  school  gardening  should  be 
considered,  as  well  as  the  harmonious  location  of  the  build- 
ings. The  kind  of  trees  and  shrubs  desired  should  be  de- 
cided upon  at  this  time,  because  valuable  time  can  be  lost 
and  much  discouragement  come  from  a  mistake  in  the  first 
planting.  Herein  lies  the  value  of  employing  a  good  land- 
scape gardener  who  is  not  only  an  artist,  but  who  is  also 
familiar  with  the  hardy  plant  life  and  can  recommend  that 
which  is  best  adapted  to  the  particular  locality.  If  there  is 
to  be  a  well  on  the  grounds,  it  should  be  so  placed  in  the 
plat  of  buildings  as  to  be  most  serviceable.  Walks  should 
be  indicated  for  the  entire  plat,  beginning  with  the  entrance 
at  the  front.  The  aim  should  be  to  make  the  tract  both  use- 
ful and  attractive,  and,  when  all  arrangements  are  agreed 
upon,  the  Board  of  Trustees  should  have  a  meeting  and 
officially  approve  such  arrangements.  A  blue-print  can  then 
be  made,  filed  as  part  of  the  school  records,  and  used  again 
when  additional  improvements  are  made.  This  method  of 
procedure  provides  a  complete  system,  so  that  improve- 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT  51 

ment  may  be  made  gradually  if  that  is  necessary.  The  plan 
given  in  the  illustration  in  the  preceding  chapter  shows  how 
one  Board  of  Trustees  solved  this  problem. 

If  it  is  impossible  to  secure  the  services  of  a  landscape 
gardener,  it  is  well  to  write  to  some  one  of  the  educational 
institutions  of  the  State  with  a  request  for  help.  A  State 
normal  school,  or  the  State  College  of  Agriculture,  often  can 
send  printed  matter  and  give  valuable  help.  Every  institu- 
tion may  not  have  a  special  department  of  landscape  archi- 
tecture, but  it  will  have  some  allied  department  which  can 
give  assistance.  Or,  if  the  assistance  cannot  be  given  di- 
rectly, the  department  will  be  glad  to  direct  you  to  some 
other  institution  or  to  some  other  means  of  getting  the 
rteeded  help.  Trees  and  shrubbery  may  often  be  secured 
from  the  State  Agricultural  College;  for  such  an  institution 
must  propagate  many  kinds  of  growing  plants  in  connection 
with  its  "Experiment  Station,"  and  the  hardy  species  can 
often  be  had  for  the  asking.  If,  however,  the  Experiment 
Station  cannot  furnish  you  what  you  want,  it  will  at  least 
recommend  shrubs  and  plants  adapted  to  your  climatic  con- 
ditions. 

One  building  was  formerly  conceived  to  be  all  that  was 
necessary  for  the  school.  This  was  built  into  one  large  reci- 
tation hall  with  coat  rooms  at  the  front  for  the  children's 
wraps  and  lunch  baskets;  while  added  to  this  the  small 
out-houses  at  the  rear  formed  the  sum  total  of  all  that  was 
believed  necessary.  School  premises  of  this  kind  are  still 
found  in  many  rural  communities,  but  the  people  are  fast 
recognizing  additional  nee'ds  and  providing  a  more  modern 
school  plant.  The  "teacherage,"  or  school  cottage,  has  been 
found  of  great  advantage  in  securing  good  teachers;  for 
family  life  cannot  be  dispensed  with  even  in  the  teaching  pro- 
fession. The  school  cottage  is  often  necessary  to  guarantee 
permanency  and  make  teaching  a  stable  profession,  but, 


52      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

even  in  those  places  where  no  such  provision  is  yet  made,  the 
old-time  plan  of  "  boarding  round  "  has  passed,  and  the  newer 
custom  of  finding  a  suitable  boarding-place  has  superseded 
it.  Yet  in  many  districts  this  plan,  too,  has  proved  unsatis- 
factory; for  the  teacher  often  becomes  discouraged  when 
no  opportunity  is  offered  for  study  or  for  school  preparation, 
and  because  of  this  she  is  unable  to  do  her  best  work.  She 
moves  about  from  district  to  district  hoping  to  find  better 
conditions.  Her  years  of  service  are  thus  limited  because 
such  a  plan  of  living  is  not  in  harmony  with  good  service. 
To  remedy  these  conditions  the  teacher's  cottage  has  been 
provided,  and  it  has  proved  a  very  effective  means  of  pro- 
fessionalizing the  teacher's  work. 

The  great  value  to  the  proposed  plan  can  at  once  be  seen. 
If  districts  generally  would  provide  for  good  living  facilities 
on  the  school  ground,  well-trained  teachers  could  be  more 
easily  procured  and  would  be  willing  to  remain  in  the  district 
for  a  much  longer  time.  No  district  wants  the  inexperienced 
teacher;  yet  with  our  present  plan  at  least  thirty  per  cent 
of  the  teachers  employed  must  enter  the  profession  as  new 
teachers  each  year.  To  provide  such  a  building,  then,  is  not 
simply  an  added  expense  to  the  district;  it  is  a  profitable 
investment  yielding  returns  far  in  excess  of  the  initial 
cost. 

Such  a  cottage  need  not  be  expensive.  Sometimes,  in  con- 
solidating schools,  an  old  one-room  school  building  can  be 
used  and  rebuilt  to  form  a  good  teachers'  cottage.  The 
cottage,  though,  should  be  attractively  built,  and  should  be 
of  good  modern  construction.  The  illustrations  here  re- 
produced represent  types  of  such  "  teache rage  "  buildings. 
One  drawing  shows  a  two-room  building,  with  such  conven- 
iences as  ought  to  be  provided  in  a  cottage  of  that  size.  The 
living-room  here  must  also  be  used  as  a  bedroom,  using  a 
couch  bed.  This  plan  is  sufficiently  complete  to  furnish  any 


A, 


TT] 


A  Two-RooM  TE.\cnERs'  COTTAGE 


54      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

good  mechanic  the  necessary  details  from  which  to  construct 
the  building.  The  same  also  is  true  of  the  other  drawings. 
Another  plan  given  is  for  a  cottage  of  four  or  five  rooms,  in 
accordance  with  the  interior  arrangement  plan.  These  three 
drawings  are  offered  as  suggestive,  but  may  be  used  for 
actual  construction  purposes  should  the  Trustees  elect  to  use 


A  THREE-  OR  FivE-Roon  TEACHERS'  COTTAGE 

The  floor  plan  shows  a  three-room  building,  hut  two  additional  bedrooms  can  be  added 
to  the  second  floor.  A  furnace  could  also  be  placed  in  the  basement. 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 


55 


them.  Other  plans  may  be  secured  from  the  local  architect, 
but  it  is  well  to  have  something  definite  to  follow  in  making 
improvements  of  this  character. 

Climatic  conditions  vary  greatly  throughout  the  country, 
and  the  basic  need  of  one  community  will  not  suit  the  neces- 
sity of  every  other.  There  is,  however,  great  need  in  most 


A  FOUR-  OR  FIVE-ROOM  TEACHERS'  COTTAGE 

The  floor  plan  shows  four  rooms,  but  an  additional  room  may  be  placed  in  the  attic 


56      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

of  our  schools  for  a  school  gymnasium.  Children  must  have 
physical  activity;  and  this  ought  to  be  of  such  a  character 
that  personal  development  will  come  through  it.  At  certain 
seasons  outdoor  sports  ought  to  be  encouraged;  but  there  are 
rainy  days,  stormy  days,  and  cold  days  when  the  children 
need  protection  from  the  weather  during  their  hours  of  play. 
The  schoolhouse  lacking  a  special  gymnasium  room  cannot 


A  SIMPLE  OUTDOOR  GYMNASIUM 
See  the  school  plan  facing  the  title-page. 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT  57 

properly  be  used  for  this,  and,  where  no  other  provision  is 
made,  little  or  no  exercise  is  taken  at  such  times.  The 
Nation,  moreover,  is  fast  recognizing  the  need  of  proper 
health  training  and  supervised  physical  development,  and  the 
school  seems  to  be  the  only  place  where  this  can  be  ade- 
quately done.  For  either  of  these  purposes  —  healthy  play 
and  corrective  exercise  —  the  gymnasium  is  necessary. 

The  opposite  drawing  shows  a  very  desirable  and  at  the 
same  time  a  very  simple  plan  for  a  separate  gymnasium 
building,  with  removable  sides,  wrhich  make  it  usable  for 
either  pleasant  or  stormy  weather.  The  construction  is  sim- 
ple, and  will  prove  inexpensive  in  countries  where  native 
woods  may  be  used  for  the  framework.  The  size  of  the 
building  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  children  to  be  ac- 
commodated, and  upon  whether  it  is  to  be  used  by  the  peo- 
ple of  the  community  for  evening  activities  in  addition  to 
serving  the  school  need.  The  local  teacher  will  be  able  to 
give  the  needed  dimensions  for  basket-ball  courts,  for  indoor 
baseball,  for  handball,  or  for  any  of  the  other  interior  activi- 
ties. Simple  apparatus  may  be  provided  at  small  cost,  such 
as  the  horizontal  bar,  chest  developers,  stall  bars,  tumbling 
mats,  etc.  If,  moreover,  the  school  becomes  the  real  social 
center  of  the  district,  this  building  will  add  greatly  to  the 
social  advantages  and  so  serve  an  important  community 
need. 

The  building  plans  and  exteriors  inserted  here  represent 
simple  and  inexpensive  rural  school  buildings  of  the  modern 
type.  The  architecture  is  plain,  but  it  is  also  attractive. 
One,  two,  and  three-room  buildings  are  represented,  and  the 
plans  are  meant  to  l)e  so  specific  that  they  may  be  used  for 
construction  purposes,  should  this  be  desirable.  They  are, 
however,  intended  primarily  to  offer  suggestions  concerning 
modern  types  and  modern  arrangement  of  such  buildings. 
The  three-room  building  presents  a  plan  which  will  meet  our 


58      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

new  needs  in  developing  manual  arts  and  domestic  science 
in  the  small  school.  The  domestic  science  kitchen  may  be 
used  as  a  hot-lunch  room,  and  in  this  way  become  a  service 
department  as  well.  The  manual  arts  room  should  be 
equipped  in  a  manner  to  accommodate  whatever  local  re- 


o 


0 


A  SIMPLE  AND  SATISFACTORY  ONE-ROOM  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING 

This  is  the  school  building  shown  in  the  plate  facing  the  title-page.    Another  arrange- 
ment of  the  exterior  and  interior  of  such  a  building  is  shown  on  page  59. 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 


59 


quirement  there  is  for  manual  arts  development.  It  may 
also  serve  as  a  department  where  apparatus  may  be  con- 
structed to  meet  any  school  need.  If  the  doors  between  be 


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ANOTHEK  TYPE  or  ONE-ROOM  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING 


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A  SIMPLE  Two-RooM  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING 
Two  types  of  exterior  shown  for  the  same  floor  plan. 


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A  VERY  DESIRABLE  TYPE  OF  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING 

Two  types  of  exterior  shown.  This  kind  of  a  building  allows  proper  provision  to  he  made 
for  instruction  in  science  and  the  practical  arts.  The  interior  of  the  main  classroom  is  shown 
in  the  drawing  on  page  65. 


62      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

provided  with  panel  glass,  the  side  rooms  will  still  be  under 
the  supervision  of  the  teacher  who  may  be  engaged  in  some 
work  in  the  central  classroom.  This  plan  is  especially 
commended  to  progressive  neighborhoods  having  but  one 
teacher  and  still  desiring  to  have  some  of  its  practical  prob- 
lems worked  out  within  the  school.  It  should  be  noted 
that  this  same  principle  can  be  combined  with  any  other 
plans,  if  it  is  desired  to  make  such  a  feature  of  the  school. 
Considering  the  new  demands  now  being  made  upon  even 
the  smaller  schools,  these  new  features  may  most  advanta- 
geously be  incorporated  in  the  school  plant. 

Another  very  desirable  type  of  rural  school  building  is 
that  erected  recently  at  Mayville,  North  Dakota,  a  floor 
plan  of  which  is  given  on  the  following  page.  The  roof  lines 
would  be  those  of  a  one-room  building,  but  the  interior  also 
provides  small  special  rooms  for  work  in  manual  training, 
domestic  science,  and  agriculture  —  very  desirable  addi- 
tions to  a  rural  school  building  —  as  well  as  the  larger  school 
classroom. 

The  size  of  the  school  building  depends  entirely  upon  the 
number  of  children  to  be  accommodated.  According  to  the 
calculated  standard  a  room  for  thirty  children  should  have 
floor  dimensions  twenty-four  by  thirty-two  feet,  it  being  bet- 
ter to  have  a  room  somewhat  oversized  than  to  have  it  too 
small,  because  of  the  necessity  for  good  air,  since  the  building 
soon  becomes  "stuffy"  if  the  air  is  not  changed  sufficiently 
often.  The  ceiling  should  be  fully  thirteen  feet  high  in  order 
to  get  proper  height  for  windows,  but  a  greater  height  wastes 
heat,  since  the  rooms  being  heated  from  the  top  the  warmest 
portion  is  toward  the  ceiling.  Light  rays  fall  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees,  so  direct  rays  will  fall  across  a  room  twice  as 
wide  as  the  windows  are  high.  Low  windows  and  wide  rooms 
cause  a  reflection  and  refraction  of  light  rays  very  harmful  to 
the  eyes  and  should,  therefore,  be  avoided  for  classrooms. 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 


At  the  front  of  the  building  there  should  be  a  broad  "en- 
trance way"  with  large  doors  to  prevent  crowding  when  the 
children  pass  in  and  out  of  the  room.  Two  coat  rooms  of 
sufficient  size  should  be  provided  near  the  entrance  door,  — 


D 

Domestic  Science 


ommmmn 
ODD  Lemma 
ommmmn 
ooonammn 


THE  MODEL  RURAL-SCHOOL  BUILDING  AT  MAYVILLE,  NORTH  DAKOTA 

The  especial  feature  here  is  the  main  floor  arrangement,  rooms  being  provided  for  special 
work  in  agriculture,  domestic  science,  and  manual  training.  The  basement,  to  which  the 
stairs  lead,  is  used  for  furnace,  playroom,  and  water  storage  for  the  school.  In  such  a  school 
building  the  best  of  a  modern  rural-school  curriculum  can  be  taught. 
(From  Woofter's  Teaching  in  Rural  Schools,  p.  42) 

one  for  the  girls  and  one  for  the  boys.  Such  an  arrangement 
has  proved  best  because  boys  are  more  inclined  to  crowd  and 
are  somewhat  rougher  than  girls.  It  also  offers  more  privi- 
leges in  adjusting  clothing,  which  is  always  an  advantage 
in  creating  a  good  moral  atmosphere  and  environment. 


64      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

These  coat  rooms  should  be  large  enough  to  insure  an  easy 
passageway,  and  should  be  provided  with  all  of  the  equip- 
ment necessary  to  make  the  children  orderly  in  their  habits. 
Their  position,  however,  must  be  such  that  these  rooms  can 
be  supervised  easily  by  the  teacher  during  the  time  of  inter- 
mission. They  should  be  heated  well  and  especially  well 
ventilated,  in  order  that  the  wet  wraps  will  dry  during  the 
stormy  weather,  and  that  the  odors  thus  arising  shall  not 
contaminate  the  schoolroom  proper.  The  teacher  ought  to 
have  a  private  place  for  such  of  her  own  personal  belong- 
ings as  she  may  bring  to  the  school;  and  a  closet  for  school 
supplies  should  be  included  in  the  plan,  possibly  in  combina- 
tion with  the  teacher's  cloak  room. 

Various  minor  details  of  the  entrance  may  here  be  con- 
sidered. Every  building  should  have  a  covered  porch  or 
veranda  at  the  front  in  order  to  make  possible  better  house- 
keeping conditions;  for  foot-scrapers  and  doormats  are  es- 
sential if  the  interior  is  to  be  kept  cleanly  and  sanitary,  and 
without  a  porch  this  condition  is  difficult  to  maintain.  All 
doors  should  be  large  and  swing  outward,  and  should  have 
a  well-adjusted  spring  at  the  top  to  prevent  slamming  and 
a  foot-latch  at  the  bottom  to  hold  them  open  at  any  angle 
desired.  Several  States  have  even  passed  laws  requiring 
all  schoolroom  doors  to  swing  outward,  as  a  safety  measure 
in  case  of  fire.  The  plan  does  not  prove  disadvantageous 
when  the  outside  doorway  opens  onto  a  veranda. 

In  order  to  provide  the  best  light  the  windows  should  have 
as  little  space  between  them  as  possible.  The  light  should 
come  from  one  side  of  the  room,  the  left,  and  should  repre- 
sent an  area  two  fifths  the  size  of  the  floor  space  of  the  room 
to  be  lighted.  It  is  better. to  use  sash  containing  a  number 
of  small  panes  because  the  added  strength  lowers  the  possi- 
bility of  accidental  breakage,  which  is  larger  in  the  school 
than  in  the  home  because  of  the  large  number  of  children 
assembled  at  the  same  time. 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT  65 

If  the  windows  are  to  be  used  at  any  time  for  ventilation 
they  should  be  hung  on  weights  for  easy  operation.  To  pre- 
vent direct  currents,  window  boards  five  inches  wide  should 
be  provided  for  the  bottom  sash.  Better  than  that  for  ven* 


AN  INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  A  CLASSROOM 

The  doors  here  are  arranged  for  the  classroom  in  the  last  building  shown.    The  windows 
apply  to  any  of  the  buildings. 


tilating  purposes  is  the  plan  of  having  at  the  rear  some  small 
windows,  near  the  ceiling  and  hung  on  transom  rods.  The 
rods  should  be  arranged  to  move  the  top  of  the  windows  in- 
ward, so  that  the  current  of  air  will  be  deflected  upward  to 
the  ceiling  as  it  enters  the  room.  This  scheme  will  prevent 
the  current  falling  directly  into  the  room  upon  the  heads  of 
the  children  who  are  at  work  in  their  seats.  It  should  be 
understood  in  this  connection  that  with  proper  ventilating 
apparatus  installed  it  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  use  ven- 
tilating windows  except  during  the  spring  and  summer 
months  when  no  fire  is  lighted. 

School  buildings  should  be  enduring  from  the  standpoint 
of  structure,  and  ought  to  be  adaptable  from  the  standpoint 
of  use.  They  should  represent  not  only  good  construction, 
but  also  modern  construction.  They  must  provide  favor- 


66     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

able  conditions  for  both  teaching  and  learning  as  well  as  for 
protecting  the  children  from  the  weather.  They  must  pro- 
vide an  environment  that  is  wholesome  and  make  possible 
an  atmosphere  that  is  pleasing.  To  this  end  both  the  in- 
terior and  the  exterior  should  be  kept  well  painted  and  in 
first-class  repair  at  all  times.  This  pays  economically,  but 
it  pays  doubly  from  the  standpoint  of  its  effect  upon  the  life 
of  the  children.  As  the  family  takes  greater  pride  in  good 
wholesome  home  conditions,  so  also  do  the  children  have  a 
deeper  interest  in  the  school  when  it  presents  an  attractive, 
wholesome  appearance. 

The  color  scheme  for  the  interior  should  be  chosen  with 
great  care  because  it  greatly  affects  the  proper  diffusion  of 
light.  Bright  colors  of  every  kind  should  be  avoided.  Sub- 
dued colors  should  always  be  used  because  of  the  soothing 
effect  they  have  upon  the  children's  nerves.  The  scheme 
should  represent  harmony,  should  give  an  artistic  appear- 
ance, and  at  the  same  time  should,  as  suggested  above,  aid 
in  the  lighting  effect.  Cream  tinting  is  usually  accepted  as 
the  very  best  coloring  for  the  ceiling.  For  the  walls  soft 
gray,  light  brown,  and  buffs  have  received  highest  approval 
from  those  who  have  given  the  matter  a  thorough  test.  All 
woodwork  should  have  a  flat  finish  to  prevent  reflection  of 
light,  and  polished  surfaces  of  every  kind  should  be  avoided. 
The  entire  setting  of  the  room,  including  furniture  and  pic- 
tures, should  produce  an  impression  of  harmony,  simplicity, 
and  tranquillity. 

There  is  a  close  relationship  between  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  child  and  his  mental  activities.  If  proper 
temperature  is  given  to  his  body,  his  mind  responds  more 
readily.  If  proper  light  is  given  to  his  eyes,  his  mind 
may  be  concentrated  more  completely  for  a  greater  period 
of  time.  If  the  interior  air  in  which  he  must  live  be  vital- 
ized properly  by  the  pure  oxidized  elements  from  without, 


67 

his  nervous  system  will  withstand  the  greater  shock  of  the 
intensified  mind  concentration.  From  this  we  deduce  the 
fact  that  light,  heat,  and  ventilation  play  a  very  important 
part  in  schoolhouse  construction.  It  is  quite  easy  to  heat 
a  building  to  any  given  temperature,  but  to  hold  this  tem- 
perature steady  and  at  the  same  time  give  proper  circulation 
and  good  ventilation  is  a  more  difficult  task.  To  secure  this 
ventilation,  there  must  be  a  steady  stream  of  fresh  air  com- 
ing into  the  room,  and  an  equal-sized  outgoing  current  of 
foul  air.  Experts  believe  that  breathed  air  becomes  laden 
with  carbon  dioxide  which  is  slightly  heavier  than  the  air 
itself,  and  which,  therefore,  gravitates  toward  the  floor. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  PLAN  FOR  A  SMALL  SCHOOL 

This  shows  how  the  fresh  air  coming  in  under  the  stove  is  heated  as  it  ascends  inside  the 
surrounding  jacket,  is  then  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  room,  and  passes  out  at  the  floor 
inlet  and  ascends  the  heated  chimney  outlet  flue. 

Thus  to  make  a  ventilating  system  effective,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  remove  the  foul  air  from  the  lower  strata  of  the 
room.  To  do  this  best  a  vent  is  necessary.  But  even  then 
some  force  will  be  required  to  set  the  air  in  motion.  The 


68      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

Plenum  Fan  has  not  been  found  practical  for  small  buildings; 
so  the  heat-driven  force  has  been  generally  employed.  It  is 
scientifically  known  that  heated  air  is  the  cause  of  all  great 
aerial  commotions,  such  as  winds  and  great  air  currents. 
On  a  smaller  scale  heated  air  within  a  room  causes  circula- 
tory movements  which,  if  properly  regulated,  will  distribute 
and  equalize  the  temperature  throughout  the  interior.  To  do 
this  it  is  necessary  to  bring  the  cold  current  of  air  from  out- 
side directly  in  contact  with  the  heated  air  which,  by  means 
of  the  upward  circulatory  force,  will  set  all  of  the  air  within 
the  room  in  motion.  If  the  outgoing  vent  opening  at  the 
floor  line  be  so  arranged  that  it  comes  in  close  contact  with 
the  heated  flue,  it  will  provide  the  necessary  force  to  remove 
the  foul  air  as  rapidly  as  the  intake  provides  fresh  air.  A 
double  flue  with  a  thin  partition  will  furnish  sufficient  heat 
to  insure  good  ventilation.  Or  a  large  flue  may  be  built 
so  that  a  galvanized  iron  tube  may  be  inserted  within 
it,  and  brought  down  to  the  stovepipe  connection.  The 
smoke  passing  out  of  the  metal  pipe  within  the  chimney 
space  will  furnish  the  heat  force  necessary  to  good  venti- 
lation. 

It  will  prove  advantageous  to  place  the  heating  apparatus 
in  the  warmest  portion  of  the  room.  This  is  probably  con- 
trary to  ordinary  practice,  but  scientific  investigation  proves 
that  it  is  best.  The  walls  of  a  room  are  three  or  more  de- 
grees colder  than  the  atmosphere  within,  while  the  window 
portion  has  been  found  to  be  several  degrees  colder  than  the 
interior  atmosphere.  Evidence  of  this  can  be  clearly  recog- 
nized by  placing  your  hands  or  cheek  against  the  window- 
pane  during  cold  periods,  when  the  temperature  is  perfectly 
comfortable  within  the  building.  Since  heated  air  moves 
first  upward,  then  toward  the  coldest  portion  of  the  room, 
which  is  the  window  space,  the  best  circulatory  movements 
are  obtained  by  placing  the  heater  in  the  warmest  spot. 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 


69 


This  not  only  causes  equal  distribution  of  heat,  but  insures 
a  warm  floor  as  well  as 
a  warm  ceiling. 

In  order  to  heat  air 
coming  in  through  the 
fresh-air  intake,  it  be-  ,/,  .. 
comes  necessary  to 
bring  it  into  the  room 
underneath  the  heating 
apparatus  which  must 
be  surrounded  by  a 
jacket  in  order  properly 
to  start  the  circulation. 
The  incoming  air  being 
cold,  its  upward  move- 
ment is  arrested  until 
it  is  properly  heated 
and  sent  forth  by  force 
of  air  expansion.  A 
careful  study  of  the 
adjoining  drawing  will 
show  how  the  heating 
apparatus  should  be 
installed.  The  intake 
should  be  the  same  size 
as  the  outgoing  vent 
and  should  be  large 
enough  to  insure  a  com- 
plete change  of  air 
within  the  room  every 
fifteen  or  twenty  min- 
utes. A  damper  placed 

in  the  fresh-air  pipe  will  regulate  the  draft  during  windy 
days.   It  is  best,  also,  to  arrange  the  pipe  outside  of  the 


CROSS-SECTION  OF  THE 
VENTILATING  PLAN 

This  shows  the  details  of  the  plan  illustrated  on 
page  67. 


70      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

building  in  a  manner  to  take  the  air  some  distance  above 
the  ground,  thus  preventing  dust  from  being  sucked  into 
the  building  through  the  vent-pipe  and  taking  air  from 
strata  purer  than  are  found  near  the  ground. 

If  a  basement  can  be  provided  for  the  building,  without 
too  much  expense,  a  small  furnace  may  be  used  instead  of 
the  heating  apparatus  described.  This,  too,  insures  greater 
cleanliness  within  the  room  and  conserves  the  floor  space 
which  would  be  occupied  by  the  heating  system.  Modern 
hot-air  furnaces  give  excellent  service  and  are  entirely  safe 
when  rightly  installed.  The  room  may  be  quickly  heated 
by  this  means,  and  only  occasional  firing  is  required  to  keep 
an  even  temperature.  This  plan  gives,  furthermore,  a  more 
certain  means  of  ventilation  than  does  the  heater  within 
the  room.  It  will  cost  somewhat  more  to  install;  but,  if  the 
basement  space  be  used  for  fuel,  it  may  save  an  outside 
building.  An  estimate  of  comparative  cost  will  always  be 
gladly  furnished  by  the  local  furnace  dealer  or  hardware 
man.  There  are  in  addition  a  number  of  patent  systems 
which  have  given  satisfactory  results  when  rightly  installed. 
Before  purchasing  any  one  of  these,  however,  it  is  best  to 
secure  the  approval  of  the  county  superintendent,  who  is 
usually  required  by  law  to  investigate  such  matters  and  to 
give  the  benefit  of  his  knowledge  freely  to  school  officers. 

The  use  of  outside  toilets  should,  if  possible,  be  avoided 
because  they  are  difficult  to  keep  sanitary.  The  immoral 
and  unsightly  conditions  caused  by  their  use  need  not  be 
pointed  out  specifically,  since  it  brings  to  mind  a  picture 
that  is  anything  but  pleasant.  Such  conditions  should 
never  be  permitted  because  of  the  lasting  impressions  they 
make  upon  the  children's  minds.  Habits  formed  in  child- 
hood cannot  be  easily  eradicated,  and  such  conditions  should 
not  be  allowed  to  exist  as  they  have  in  the  past.  If  no  other 
means  can  be  provided  such  buildings  become  a  necessity, 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 


71 


but  in  that  event  the 
vault  should  be  deep, 
and  well  walled  and 
vented.  A  shield  with 
clinging  vines  covering 
it  should  be  provid- 
ed and  the  building 
should  be  kept  in  first- 
class  condition  at  all 
times.  The  interior 
must  be  kept  well 
painted,  and  no  mark- 
ings of  any  kind  per- 
mitted. It  ought  to 
be  cleansed  frequent- 
ly with  water  and 
soap,  and  plenty  of 
slacked  lime  applied  to 
the  vault.  One  of  the 
best  means  of  keep- 
ing such  buildings 
clean  is  to  appoint 
"monitors"  from  each 
of  the  sexes,  and  give 
them  not  only  the 
instruction  but  the 
authority  needed  for 
good  management. 
The  teacher  must,  how- 
ever, always  be  held 
responsible  for  good 
supervision  in  this  con- 
nection. 

During  recent  years 


A 


PLAN  FOR  A  TOILET  WHERE  RUNNING 
WATER  is  NOT  AVAILABLE 


72      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

certain  chemical  processes  have  been  discovered  which 
make  possible  interior  toilets,  even  when  water  pressure  is 
not  to  be  had.  Such  a  system  may  be  installed,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration,  and  the  toilet  room  located  in  a  com- 
partment next  to  the  children's  coat  rooms  indicated  in 
several  of  the  building  plans.  The  process  for  the  com- 
bination of  chemicals  requires  a  water-tight  receptacle  of 
the  proper  size,  which  must  either  be  made  of  metal  or  of 
concrete.  It  is  necessary  to  place  this  tank  so  that  a  man- 
hole will  extend  above  the  ground,  outside  of  the  building 
wall,  to  be  used  in  removing  the  contents  and  providing  the 
means  for  cleaning  when  this  is  necessary.  The  chemical 
contents  usually  need  removing  twice  each  year,  depend- 
ing upon  the  extent  to  which  the  vault  is  used  and  the 
size  of  the  tank.  Before  installing  such  a  system  the 
Trustees  should  get  advice  from  their  county  superintend- 
ent, or  from  some  one  authorized  by  him. 

It  is  very  advantageous  to  have  a  water-pressure  system, 
and  in  these  days  of  mechanical  skill  even  a  small  rural  com- 
munity may  have  this  advantage.  A  small  plant  is  not  very 
expensive  and  can  be  installed  in  the  basement,  since  it  oc- 
cupies but  small  space.  The  entire  apparatus  needed  con- 
sists of  a  force  pump  for  the  well,  a  small  gasoline  engine,  a 
pressure  tank,  and  an  air  pump.  It  can  be  set  up  by  any 
good  plumber,  and  can  safely  be  operated  without  mechani- 
cal skill.  There  are  several  companies  that  make  a  business 
of  installing  such  plants  at  a  reasonable  cost,  —  one  of  the 
best  known  among  them  being  the  Kewanee.  Here  again 
good  advice  should  be  sought  before  undertaking  to  pur- 
chase such  a  plant.  With  the  installation  of  a  water-pres- 
sure system,  several  other  improvements  are  made  possible. 
Drinking  fountains  and  lavatories  may  be  installed  in  the 
cloak  rooms  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  compartments. 
Flush  water-closets  may  be  used  by  providing  sewer  drain- 


THE  SCHOOL  PLANT  73 

age.  The  water  may  be  piped  to  the  other  buildings  on  the 
premises.  A  concrete  swimming-tank  may  also  be  built  in 
connection  with  the  gymnasium,  or  perhaps  outside.  In 
either  case,  however,  good  drainage  is  necessary,  and  the  sys- 
tem must  be  carefully  guarded  to  keep  it  sanitary.  If  the 
tank  is  built  outside,  the  sun's  rays  will  provide  sufficient 
heat  during  the  warm  weather;  while  if  it  is  installed  inside, 
an  artificial  means  of  heating  must  be  provided. 

Water  on  the  premises  serves,  moreover,  as  a  fire  protec- 
tion, and  offers  an  opportunity  for  irrigation  purposes.  The 
lawn,  flowers,  and  shrubs  need  water  during  some  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  by  its  use  desirable  plants  may  be  propa- 
gated to  advantage.  Work  necessary  in  this  connection  will 
gladly  be  done  by  the  children  under  the  wise  guidance  of 
the  teacher,  and  the  school  plant  will  offer  added  opportu- 
nities for  the  application  of  knowledge. 

A  complete  school  plant  as  described  will  mean  a  consid- 
erable outlay  of  expense,  but  it  will  at  the  same  time  repre- 
sent an  institution  worthy  of  community  pride.  It  will  offer 
a  center  for  social  activities  and  a  place  for  community  wor- 
ship. It  may  be  used  for  grange  meetings  or  for  other  farm 
gatherings.  It  will  make  possible  the  night  school  for  adults, 
which  is  coming  to  be  one  of  the  best  means  of  individual 
development  resulting  in  community  inspiration.  It  should 
be  remembered,  too,  that  every  child  of  the  community 
must  enter  the  school  at  the  age  of  six  years  and  spend  the 
larger  portion  of  his  "waking  day"  in  this  institution  for 
at  least  eight  years.  Impressions  gained  during  this  time 
will  l>e  greatly  influenced  'by  the  school  home  and  its  sur- 
roundings. The  child's  life  will  be  shaped  as  well  as  his 
faculties  sharpened  during  the  days,  weeks,  and  months 
which  he  spends  there.  Then  as  the  home  should  be  made 
beautiful  for  the  purpose  of  influencing  the  family  aright,  so 
the  school  should  be  made  a  place  which  will  be  loved  and 


74       HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

revered  in  after  years  by  the  children,  grown  to  manhood 
and  womanhood,  who  have  become  useful  citizens  of  a  com- 
monwealth. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  your  school  plant  a  place  where  you  would  enjoy  spending  six  hours 
each  day? 

2.  How  can  the  interest  of  children  be  secured  to  the  extent  that  they 
will  feel  a  personal  responsibility  for  the  care  of  the  community 
buildings? 

3.  To  what  do  you  attribute  the  lack  of  interest  in  rural  school  property 
which  is  so  in  evidence  almost  everywhere? 

4.  Do  you  believe  that  your  children  are  physically  comfortable  during 
the  six  hours  they  spend  in  the  schoolroom,  considering  things  as  they 
now  exist? 

5.  Is  your  community  progressive  enough  to  desire  the  very  best  for 
their  children,  if  the  whole  matter  should  be  talked  over  in  a  fair  and 
frank  way? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FURNITURE  AND  APPARATUS 

THE  school  should  represent  a  homelike  atmosphere,  or  it 
should  come  as  near  to  this  as  is  possible  when  the  neces- 
sity for  organization  is  considered.  Perhaps  it  might  be 
more  definite  to  say  that  it  should  represent  as  many  of  the 
homelike  comforts  as  possible,  so  that  the  atmosphere  of  the 
one  will  not  be  entirely  foreign  to  the  other.  In  order  to  do 
this  it  may  be  necessary  to  add  to  school  furnishings  and  to 
change  somewhat  the  accustomed  plan.  It  is  a  little  diffi- 
cult to  break  away  from  well-established  customs,  but  the 
progressive  district  will  always  readily  respond  to  new  things 
when  the  same  can  be  shown  to  be  advantageous. 

In  the  old-time  school  little  furniture  was  provided.  The 
benches  were  crude  and  often  without  any  back  rest.  Pu- 
pils large  and  small  sat  on  seats  of  equal  height,  the  smaller 
ones  being  compelled  to  dangle  their  feet  because  they  could 
not  reach  the  floor.  The  discomfort  of  this  is  not  fully  real- 
ized until  one  tries  it  as  an  experiment;  but  when  the  serious 
effect  is  once  known,  no  school  officer  or  teacher  will  permit 
such  a  condition  to  exist.  The  interior  of  the  early  school- 
room presented  bare  walls.  The  small  blackboard  at  the 
front  wras  made  by  mixing  in  the  paint  charcoal  and  pumice. 
The  shiny  surface  reflected  the  cross-light  that  came  into  the 
room  from  both  sides.  The  stove  in  the  center  of  the  room 
was  a  great  inconvenience,  and  caused  those  near  it  to  suf- 
fer from  heat  while  those  in  the  farthest  corners  were  handi- 
capped by  being  too  cold. 

For  some  years  the  school  premises  continued  to  repre- 
sent an  improvised  place  where  the  children  were  expected 


76      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

to  meet  for  learning.  The  compelling  force  was  anything 
but  interest  or  personal  pride.  The  common  expression  was, 
"sending  the  children  to  school."  It  was  not  expected  that 
the  child's  own  personal  desires  should  "induce  him  to  go,'' 
nor  that  he  should  find  in  the  plan  of  organization  personal 
attraction  or  comfort.  As  the  school  has  developed  through 
the  years  these  very  things  have  been  counted  of  first  im- 
portance. It  is  intended  now  that  school  shall  be  main- 
tained in  a  manner  to  attract  the  interest  of  the  children; 
to  cause  a  desire  "to  go"  to  school  without  "being  sent";  to 
provide  a  "school  home"  atmosphere  in  order  that  the  tran- 
sition from  one  to  the  other  will  not  be  too  great.  Good  liv- 
ing conditions  are  necessary  because  the  child  spends  a  large 
portion  of  his  time  in  his  foster  home,  the  school.  He  no 
longer  goes  there  to  learn  to  read  and  write  and  cipher,  but 
goes  to  be  taught  in  terms  of  life's  needs. 

School  furnishings  are  herewith  included  under  two  heads : 
First,  that  which  is  essential  to  comfort  and  necessary  to 
good  work;  second,  that  which  is  desirable  and  advanta- 
geous to  school  activities.  At  the  top  of  the  first  list  we  may 
place  good  window  blinds.  The  best  material  for  durability 
is  duck  or  canvas  cloth.  Light  brown  or  drab  colors  are 
preferable.  Venetian  blinds  hung  on  hinges  and  fitted  with 
adjustment  rods  give  great  satisfaction.  These  are  much 
more  expensive  than  duck  blinds,  and  because  of  this  cannot 
be  recommended  for  general  use.  Some  rays  of  light  should 
pass  through  even  when  the  curtain  is  drawn,  and  duck  ma- 
terial permits  the  softer  rays  to  enter  the  room,  causing  no 
glare.  All  window  blinds  should  be  adjustable,  in  order  to 
secure  the  best  lighting  effect.  On  dark  days  they  may  be 
lowered  from  the  top,  so  that  the  largest  amount  of  light 
rays  will  enter  the  room.  During  bright  weather,  adjust- 
ment may  be  made  to  shut  out  a  certain  portion  of  the  light. 
It  should  always  be  remembered  that  the  high  light  is  the 


FURNITURE  AND  APPARATUS        77 

best  light,  because  the  rays  fall  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  de- 
grees and  can  extend  into  the  room  only  twice  as  far  as  the 
tops  of  the  windows  are  from  the  floor  line.  Refracted  or 
reflected  light  rays  are  very  harmful  to  the  eyes;  therefore 
special  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  lighting  propo- 
sition, and  every  means  necessary  to  prevent  eye  injury 
provided. 

While  it  is  essential  to  include  blackboards  in  the  general 
building  scheme,  they  are  usually  listed  under  school  fur- 
nishings. Real  slate  makes  the  best  boards,  and  the  dura- 
bility of  this  composition  makes  it  cheapest  in  the  end.  The 
size  needed  depends  upon  the  enrollment  of  the  school,  but 
it  is  an  advantage  to  have  all  of  the  wall  space  at  the  front, 
and  on  the  side  opposite  the  windows,  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. If  patent  composition  board  is  used  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  recoat  it  with  liquid  slating  each  year.  A  width  of 
three  and  one  half  to  four  feet  admits  of  the  best  adjustment 
for  children  of  all  sizes.  It  should  therefore  be  placed  low 
down  on  the  wall  space,  so  as  to  meet  the  need  of  the  primary 
children  as  well  as  those  of  the  upper  grammar  grades. 

Pupils'  desks  should  represent  comfort  as  well  as  utility. 
Different  sizes  should  be  selected  for  the  mixed  school,  but 
it  is  an  advantage  to  have  some  adjustable  seats  in  each 
room,  provided  of  course  that  the  adjustment  is  used  intelli- 
gently. I  mention  this  particularly  because  adjustable  seats 
are  often  provided  for  schoolrooms,  but  the  adjustment  re- 
mains stationary  year  after  year,  resulting  in  no  advantage. 
In  some  schoolrooms  adjustments  are  so  poorly  made  that 
bad  effects  are  at  once  apparent.  One  side  of  the  desk  may 
be  lower  than  the  other,  or  the  height  of  the  seat  and  the  top 
4  of  the  desk  may  be  out  of  proportion.  The  seat  portior 
ought  to  be  lowered  so  that  the  child  may  place  his  feet  prop- 
erly on  the  floor,  and  the  desk  should  then  be  adjusted  to 
give  the  right  height  for  general  use.  The  spacing  on  the 


78      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

floor  should  be  arranged  to  give  the  best  bodily  comfort. 
The  child  should  not  be  compelled  to  strain  his  back  muscles 
leaning  forward  in  using  the  desk,  thus  forcing  the  organs 
of  his  body  out  of  their  natural  position.  The  best  patent 
seat  becomes  very  rigid  when  fastened  to  the  floor  and  can- 
not be  expected  to  give  real  bodily  comfort.  Because  of  this 
it  is  a  great  advantage  to  provide  some  easy  armchairs  and 
rocking-chairs  for  each  room.  These  may  be  used  alter- 
nately by  the  children  during  study  periods,  and  will  pro- 
vide a  means  of  change  and  rest.  They  may  be  placed  in  the 
room  so  that  their  use  will  cause  no  disorder,  yet  add  much 
to  the  wholesome  comfort  of  the  school. 

There  should  be  a  roomy  desk  and  an  easy  swivel-chair 
provided  for  the  teacher.  The  chair  may  not  be  used  much 
in  school  time,  but  it  will  provide  ease  and  comfort  for  the 
teacher  during  intermission  periods.  The  desk  should  be 
large,  so  that  everyday  material  may  be  stored  away  in  an 
orderly  manner  and  brought  out  for  use  when  needed.  A 
bookcase  of  sufficient  size  is  necessary  to  the  proper  care  of 
the  school  library.  It  should  have  closed  compartments 
fitted  with  doors  adjusted  for  easy  access.  A  large  wall 
clock  is  an  aid  in  regulating  the  daily  duties,  and  prevents 
many  unnecessary  questions. 

Two  essential  things  found  in  all  modern  well-equipped 
buildings  are  a  furnace  and  a  bubble  fountain.  If  there  be 
no  furnace,  each  room  should  be  provided  with  a  modern 
heating  and  ventilating  plant.  There  are  a  number  of  pat- 
ent systems  that  have  given  satisfaction  when  properly  in- 
stalled. The  main  point  at  issue  will  be  to  select  a  tested 
plant  and  then  see  that  it  is  so  arranged  and  installed  that 
it  will  insure  good  service.  A  fountain  or  some  other  sani- 
tary means  of  providing  drinking  water  is  necessary  to  the 
health  of  the  children.  They  ought  to  be  given  every  en- 
couragement to  drink  often  and  abundantly.  Water  used 


FURNITURE  AND  APPARATUS        79 

should  be  tested  occasionally;  this  can  best  be  done  by  send- 
ing a  sample  to  the  State  Chemist  or  the  State  Agricul- 
tural College  for  analysis. 

Various  articles  may  be  mentioned  as  "desirable  furni- 
ture." An  organ  or  piano  may  be  considered  first  because 
this  encourages  music  in  the  school.  The  piano  is  now  really 
more  appropriate  than  the  organ  because  it  is  so  commonly 
found  in  the  home.  There  are  always  some  children  among 
the  group  who  have  musical  talent,  and  an  instrument  of 
this  kind  can  be  made  very  practical.  It  can  be  used  to 
advantage  for  evening  entertainments  and  for  district  gath- 
erings. In  this  way  it  renders  a  large  service  to  the  en- 
tire community.  The  victrola  is  extensively  used  for  music 
appreciation,  and  with  well-selected  records  it  may  be  made 
an  educational  asset  as  well  as  a  means  for  wholesome  en- 
tertainment. Well-selected  pictures  hung  properly  in  the 
schoolroom  add  to  its  attractiveness  and  provide  a  nucleus 
for  art  study.  Special  consideration  is  given  to  this  in 
another  chapter. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  a  child  to  become  ill  in  school.  The 
very  young  child  often  becomes  drowsy  during  the  long 
afternoon  because  of  habits  formed  at  home.  Under  such 
circumstances  a  couch  is  very  usable.  A  well-selected 
leather  type  is  best  suited  to  the  schoolroom.  It  ought  to 
be  provided  with  a  pillow  and  a  blanket,  and  be  placed  in 
the  room  in  such  a  way  as  to  add  a  homelike  atmosphere. 
Scrim  curtains  at  the  windows  will  serve  to  subdue  the  light, 
and  at  the  same  time  add  to  the  attractiveness  within. 
Nothing  is  more  cheery  than  the  open  fireplace,  and  in  com- 
munities where  wood  is  plentiful,  or  where  natural  gas  is 
abundant,  it  really  becomes  an  inexj>ensive  luxury.  It  is  an 
advantage  in  ventilating  the  room,  and  contributes  generally 
to  the  betterment  of  health  by  removing  the  carbon  dioxide 
from  the  floor  line.  A  reading-table  placed  before  the  open 


80      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

fireplace,  to  be  used  by  pupils  during  leisure  moments,  pro- 
vides another  item  of  home  atmosphere. 

Many  schools  now  provide  complete  furnishings  for  a 
kitchenette  to  be  used  for  preparing  a  hot  lunch  for  the  noon 
meal.  When  the  school  has  a  domestic  science  department 
this  is  unnecessary,  because  one  department  can  serve  for 
both.  Such  an  equipment  is  an  advantage  during  com- 
munity social  gatherings  when  an  evening  lunch  is  served. 
Its  special  value  is  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  dealing  with 
this  problem.  Other  furnishings  may  be  found  desirable 
which  have  not  been  listed,  but  the  object  sought  has  been 
to  suggest  some  material  which  will  help  to  make  a  "school 
home"  of  the  kind  desired  by  some  of  our  most  progressive 
districts.  In  the  new  order  of  things  it  may  be  made  an 
essential  part  of  our  educational  plan,  and  the  new  school- 
room may  take  on  the  appearance  of  a  well-arranged  living- 
room  adapted  to  a  larger  group  of  children. 

School  apparatus  may  be  listed  under  the  same  two  head- 
ings ;  namely,  the  essential  and  the  desirable.  The  first  group 
should  be  selected  with  the  greatest  care  because  its  use 
will  increase  classroom  efficiency.  A  good  supply  of  black- 
board erasers  with  a  good  device  for  keeping  them  clean 
will  prove  most  helpful.  Free  textbooks  are  commonly 
provided  by  the  district,  and  when  properly  handled  in  the 
school  are  both  economical  and  advantageous.  Every  means 
should  be  used  to  keep  them  clean  and  in  good  condition. 
Book-covers  and  book-markers  will  be  an  aid  in  this.  A  sys- 
tematic accounting  should  be  kept  of  all  adopted  texts,  and 
the  teacher  should  be  made  custodian  when  the  school  is  in 
session.  Good  maps  make  history  and  geography  more  real, 
and  every  schoolroom  should  be  provided  with  a  full  cabinet 
set,  which  has  been  approved  for  accuracy.  A  good  quality 
of  material  should  be  selected,  for  constant  use  in  the  school- 
room necessitates  considerable  wear  and  tear.  Mounting 


FURNITURE  AND  APPARATUS  81 

the  rolls  in  a  cabinet  keeps  them  free  from  dust  and  pre- 
serves the  coloring.  A  globe  shows  all  geographical  loca- 
tions more  accurately  and  more  scientifically  than  maps, 
and  may  also  be  used  to  illustrate  the  earth's  movements. 
The  most  expensive  types  are  not  necessary,  but  clear  type 
and  good  coloring  are  essential  to  good  results.  A  small 
call  bell  will  be  needed,  provided  the  building  is  not  equipped 
with  the  larger  type.  Window  sticks,  blackboard  pointers, 
and  the  like  can  be  made  in  the  manual  training  shop,  and 
thus  serve  as  an  incentive  to  make  the  shop-work  problems 
include  all  schoolroom  necessities. 

In  the  "desirable  list"  we  must  include  a  well-equipped 
home-economics  kitchen,  and  a  manual  training  shop  with 
adequate  tools  for  good  service.  The  cook-stove  will  be  the 
most  expensive  part  of  the  home-economics  equipment. 
Utensils  needed  should  be  chosen  after  consulting  the 
teacher  or  other  well-informed  authority.  State  educational 
departments  will  always  give  assistance  by  recommending 
materials  which  are  standard  and  necessary.  The  amount 
of  equipment  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  classes.  A 
standard  sewing-machine  can  be  used  to  advantage,  and 
with  this  a  good  cabinet  and  a  cutting-table  are  necessary. 
The  entire  cost  of  equipping  such  a  department  for  both 
sewing  and  cookery  need  not  be  very  large,  and  equipment 
will  prove  very  helpful  in  carrying  into  effect  the  new  plan 
of  redirected  education.  In  the  workshop  for  boys,  the  tools 
should  be  of  good  quality  and  well  sorted.  The  quantity, 
however,  need  not  be  large  for  the  average  rural  school. 
Tool-cases  should  be  built  so  that  every  tool  can  be  kept  it 
place  when  not  in  use.  It  is  necessary  to  have  an  adequate 
number  of  work  benches  and  a  simple  tool-grinder.  In  se- 
lecting the  equipment,  guidance  may  be  had  from  the 
teacher  or  from  one  of  the  state  institutions  where  such  a 
department  is  maintained. 


82      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

Some  simple  apparatus  for  making  tests  in  agriculture 
may  be  procured  at  small  cost,  and  will  serve  to  make  this 
subject  more  interesting.  All  experiments  may  be  per- 
formed in  the  manual  training  room,  where  a  small  cabinet 
may  be  placed  for  preserving  materials  and  for  keeping  the 
apparatus  in  order.  A  small  amount  of  scientific  apparatus 
will  be  needed  for  the  purpose  of  testing  some  of  the  laws  of 
physics  and  for  making  some  discoveries  in  biology.  Since 
the  world  in  which  we  live  is  a  great  scientific  laboratory, 
some  means,  even  in  the  elementary  school,  should  be  pro- 
vided for  the  study  of  science. 

Playground  apparatus  may  be  made  to  serve  a  good  pur- 
pose if  placed  advantageously  on  the  school  grounds  and  its 
use  supervised  by  the  teacher.  Swings,  teeter-boards,  and 
curved  slides  are  best  adapted  to  the  smaller  children.  The 
larger  ones  enjoy  the  giant  stride,  the  merry-go-round,  and 
jumping  standards.  All  of  this  material  is  easily  made  and 
is  inexpensive.  As  an  illustration,  the  giant  stride  may  be 
made  by  placing  a  large-sized  wagon  wheel  upon  a  pole 
which  has  been  firmly  set  in  the  ground  and  extends  ten  feet 
in  the  air.  Four  chains  should  be  fastened  to  the  wheel,  at 
equal  distances,  and  allowed  to  hang  down  to  within  five 
feet  of  the  ground.  A  looped  cotton  rope  provided  at  the 
end  with  a  snap  completes  the  apparatus.  The  loop  end 
should  extend  down  to  within  two  feet  of  the  ground.  When 
not  assigned  for  use  this  rope  attachment  should  be  un- 
snapped  and  kept  in  the  care  of  the  teacher.  A  merry-go- 
round  represents  an  even  more  simple  construction.  Two 
pieces  of  two  by  four  dimension  material  may  be  spiked  to- 
gether, in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  placed  on  top  of  a  post 
thirty  inches  tall  which  has  been  firmly  set  in  the  ground. 
An  inch  iron  pin  at  the  top  of  the  post  should  extend  through 
a  hole  made  in  the  center  of  the  cross  sweeps.  Durability 
and  strength  will  be  added  by  placing  a  metal  plate  above 


FURNITURE  AND  APPARATUS  83 

and  below  the  sweeps  for  the  iron  pin  to  pass  through. 
Other  devices  mentioned  are  of  simple  construction  and  may 
be  made  by  any  schoolboy  who  has  a  mechanical  turn  of 
mind.  Patterns  and  directions  for  making  of  playground 
apparatus  may  be  had  from  most  state  institutions.  The 
pupils  of  the  school  may  be  organized  into  groups  and  al- 
lowed to  choose  their  own  censors  and  direct  their  own  games. 
In  so  far  as  they  are  able  to  do  this  satisfactorily  they  de- 
velop independence,  individuality,  and  leadership,  —  all  of 
which  are  very  important  characteristics. 

Some  one  has  said  that  "cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness," 
and  this  applies  to  good  housekeeping  in  the  schoolroom  the 
same  as  in  the  home.  To  do  this  well  it  is  necessary  to  have 
good  cleaning  material  and  disinfectants.  Some  States  reg- 
ulate this  through  the  State  Board  of  Health,  but  when  no 
such  provision  is  made  the  School  Board  should  see  to  it  that 
proper  attention  is  given  to  the  matter.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  materials  used  to  prevent  dust,  but  each  one  requires 
care  and  judgment  in  its  use.  A  bristle  brush  with  long 
flexible  bristles  makes  a  better  sweeper  than  the  ordinary 
broom.  It  is  best  adapted  for  working  under  and  about  the 
desks,  and  makes  a  very  practical  tool.  A  disinfectant 
should  be  used  at  least  twice  during  the  year  at  times  wiien 
the  school  has  been  adjourned  for  vacation.  Materials  used 
should  have  the  approval  of  the  county  health  officer,  or 
other  reliable  authority.  During  a  time  when  contagious 
diseases  are  prevalent,  the  disinfectant  should  be  used  fre- 
quently. If  there  is  no  local  health  officer,  the  county  phy- 
sician will  always  give  directions  as  to  how  to  use  preven- 
tives and  how  best  to  preserve  good  health  conditions. 

Soap  and  water  are  always  necessary  after  play,  and  so 
some  adequate  arrangement  should  be  made  for  cleansing 
the  hands  and  face.  If  a  pressure  water-system  has  been  in- 
stalled it  is  easy  to  provide  lavatory  equipment.  If  this  has 


84      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

not  been  done,  some  other  means  for  washing  will  be  neces- 
sary. The  overflow  water  saved  from  the  drinking  tank  may 
well  be  utilized  for  this  purpose.  A  metal-lined  trough 
equipped  with  drainage  will  serve  as  a  good  place  in  which  to 
set  wash  basins.  If  there  is  a  well  on  the  school  premises  a 
similar  outside  arrangement  may  be  made  for  use  during 
pleasant  weather. 

As  a  last  word  School  Boards  are  urged  to  purchase  all  of 
their  material  from  local  reliable  firms,  and  to  look  askance 
upon  the  ordinary  agent  who  simply  has  something  to  sell. 
Standard  lists  of  school  supplies  are  often  approved  by  the 
County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  and  may  be  had  for  the 
asking.  It  is  always  well  to  seek  the  advice  and  the  counsel 
of  this  office  when  materials  are  needed,  for  by  so  doing 
many  mistakes  may  be  avoided.  Feel  free  also  to  call  upon 
your  State  School  Superintendent  also  for  assistance  and 
advice,  for  every  public  school  in  the  State  is  under  the  gen- 
eral supervision  of  that  office  and  is  therefore  entitled  to 
request  its  help  whenever  needed. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  permanent  loss  can  come  to  your  children  because  of  poor 
equipment  in  the  schoolroom? 

2.  What  do  you  consider  essential  to  form  good  working  equipment,  and 
to  provide  a  wholesome  environment? 

3.  How  can  a  community  be  made  so  attractive  to  young  people  that 
they  are  entirely  satisfied  with  their  social  surroundings? 

4.  Do  you  consider  community  pride  advantageous  in  creating  commu- 
nity leadership? 

5.  Does  your  school  have  a  reputation  which  is  definitely  known  and 
recognized  outside  of  your  own  district? 


CHAPTER  IX 

SCHOOLROOM  DECORATIONS 

THE  present  age  has  developed  more  of  a  general  aesthetic 
taste  than  has  been  developed  throughout  past  time.  We 
may  not  have  produced  as  many  great  artists,  but  a  keen 
sense  of  appreciation  is  found  among  all  our  people.  Art 
in  our  schools,  art  in  our  homes,  and  the  beautiful  and  the 
lovely  everywhere  in  nature  have  made  silent  impressions 
upon  the  individual  lives  of  our  citizens,  with  the  result  that 
they  are  now  applying  great  artistic  truths  in  all  the  works 
of  their  own  creation.  Never  has  the  world  known  such 
opportunities  for  the  study  of  art  and  for  the  appreciation 
of  the  really  artistic  as  are  presented  to  us  just  now.  Our 
buildings  everywhere  are  coming  to  be  designed  by  skilled 
architects,  and  the  structures  become  real  works  of  art. 
The  plans  represent  carefully  worked-out  proportions,  hav- 
ing a  complete  symmetrical  arrangement.  The  interiors 
are  well  planned,  representing  harmony  in  the  proper  pro- 
portions throughout.  Furniture  is  chosen  not  only  with 
reference  to  ease  and  comfort,  but  also  with  such  good  taste 
that  the  whole  setting  presents  a  harmonious  effect.  These 
things  were  first  noticed  in  the  cities,  but  wre  now  find  many 
rural  communities  as  much  given  to  aesthetic  enjoyment  as 
the  urban  populations.  The  new  type  of  the  rural  school 
home  is  very  striking,  and,  when  representing  an  artistic 
atmosphere,  it  stands  as  a  real  demonstration  of  neighbor- 
hood ideals. 

All  of  this  has  gradually  come  out  of  the  repeated  obser- 
vation that  the  normal  child  is  able  to  reach  a  broader,  higher 
development  and  to  become  a  better  and  happier  individual 


86      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

amid  beautiful  home  surroundings.  It  follows  that  children 
who  have  the  opportunity  to  come  into  such  an  environ- 
ment during  the  greater  part  of  the  day  will  develop  that 
natural  poise,  careful  judgment,  and  self-confidence  that  are 
necessary  to  their  educational  advancement,  and  become 
fitted  as  men  and  women  proper  to  represent  a  strong  nation 
and  a  great  people.  The  school,  as  well  as  the  home,  must 
recognize  this  as  a  great  necessity,  and  so  make  these  in- 
dividual truths  a  living  reality  through  school  and  home 
decoration. 

It  has  been  said  that  small  village  and  country  places  have 
not  made  rapid  progress  in  this  particular  direction  because 
such  progress  entails  an  expenditure  not  always  available. 
But  this  can  no  longer  be  urged  as  a  handicap,  for  much  has 
been  done  and  is  being  done  with  just  the  available  materials 
at  hand,  when  directed  by  one  interested  in  artistic  devel- 
opment. In  the  school  there  is  one  great  need,  —  the  en- 
thusiastic influence  of  the  teacher  to  bring  out  the  spon- 
taneous interest  and  assistance  of  the  children.  The  law  of 
order  is  universal  and  impelling.  This  is  the  first  step  into 
the  realm  of  beauty  and  harmony.  Every  good  teacher  in- 
sists upon  neatness  and  order  in  the  arrangement  of  school 
materials,  and  thus  early  begins  development  of  a  perma- 
nent aesthetic  taste. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  begin  the  work  without  funds, 
the  teacher  must  open  her  eyes  and  take  an  inventory  of  the 
possibilities.  She  has  all  nature  to  draw  from,  and  what  a 
splendid  opportunity  is  presented  through  it  to  teach  the 
child  simple  effective  decorations  in  color,  representing  suita- 
ble harmony  and  arrangement!  It  is  quite  important  in  the 
beginning  to  teach  the  difference  between  decorations  for 
special  occasions,  and  those  that  may  remain  in  the  school- 
room permanently.  Decorations  in  profusion  arouse  the 
emotions,  and  cause  a  greater  or  less  excitement  in  the  minds 


SCHOOLROOM  DECORATIONS         87 

of  the  children.  To  continue  this  excitement,  though  pleas- 
ant at  first,  will  ultimately  lead  to  distraction  and  confusion, 
and  has  at  last  a  tendency  to  pall  on  the  mind.  Because 
of  this,  such  a  plan  must  be  used  only  for  special  occasions. 
Our  everyday  decorative  plan  should  therefore  be  much 
more  simple  than  that  used  for  special-day  occasions,  and 
the  room  should  present  a  cheery,  happy  appearance,  having 
an  atmosphere  of  quietude  and  a  soothing  effect  upon  the 
children. 

One  large  bunch  of  autumn  foliage  sprays,  cut  different 
lengths,  arranged  loosely  so  that  they  fall  into  natural  posi- 
tions and  set  against  a  plain  background,  so  that  the  light 
from  the  side  may  play  over  it  and  bring  out  the  warm  glow 
of  color  and  gradation  of  tint,  makes  infinitely  better  im- 
pressions than  bunches  scattered  here  and  there  throughout 
the  room.  The  former  setting  admits  of  a  change  in  plan 
and  arrangement  that  will  bring  new  delight  and  pleasure 
to  those  in  the  room,  and  hence  may  be  recommended  as 
entirely  fitting.  Plants  placed  between  the  children  and  the 
light  appear  only  in  silhouette,  and  hence  fail  to  awaken  the 
proper  artistic  appreciation.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  study 
the  background  and  its  effect  upon  the  decoration,  to  the 
same  degree  that  you  study  the  materials  to  be  used  in  your 
foreground.  A  screen  makes  a  very  good  background,  and 
is  often  used  in  our  large  rooms  to  assist  in  the  general  effect. 
A  waste-paper  basket  makes  a  very  good  holder  in  which 
foliage  will  keep  for  a  month  or  two;  and  it  may  be  noticed 
that  the  colors  will  seem  gradually  to  blend  into  the  harmony 
of  the  room.  It  should  be  rememl>ered  that  the  greatest 
beauty  can  be  brought  out  only  through  proper  arrange- 
ment. 

In  all  schoolroom  decorations  the  teacher  and  the  pupil 
should  work  together.  They  should  select  and  reject  their 
materials  until  their  color  scheme  and  harmony  are  perfect, 


88      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

and  should  study  the  setting  until  the  best  decorative  im- 
pressions are  produced.  Children  are  easily  interested,  and 
the  work  becomes  realistic  to  them  when  they  have  a  part 
in  the  plan  of  arrangement.  This  affords  a  means  of  de- 
velopment which  is  not  found  in  the  same  degree  in  any 
other  school  motive.  The  influence  is  greater  because  the 
children  have  acquired  their  knowledge  by  working  out  the 
plan  and  the  interest  is  correspondingly  keener  because  of 
the  part  which  they  have  had  in  it. 

Blackboard  decoration  should  be  limited.  These  boards 
are  provided  primarily  for  use  during  daily  lessons  and  are 
very  necessary  to  the  promotion  of  good  work.  They  should, 
however,  be  kept  properly,  and  all  materials  placed  thereon 
which  are  to  be  left  for  any  time  should  represent  care  and 
neatness.  Monthly  calendars  may  be  made  by  using  toned 
wrapping  paper,  or  building  paper,  with  the  assistance  of 
colored  crayons,  and  are  really  more  artistic  and  more  effec- 
tive than  those  drawn  upon  the  blackboard.  Other  neces- 
sary helps  may  be  made  in  a  similar  way,  all  of  which  should 
represent  a  simple  yet  artistic  design.  Much  of  the  crepe 
paper  is  too  gaudy  and  too  distracting  in  color  and  composi- 
tion for  the  proper  artistic  effect  in  a  good  schoolroom.  If 
a  border  is  to  be  used  it  should  represent  subdued  colors  with 
proper  tone  effect.  Borders  of  any  kind  arranged  above  the 
blackboards  interfere  with  pictures  hung  on  the  wall.  Both 
should  not  be  used,  because  it  is  improper  to  hang  pictures 
over  a  border,  and  to  place  them  above  it  makes  them 
entirely  too  high  for  proper  effect. 

Posters,  programs,  notices,  and  like  materials  may  be  made 
by  the  children,  and,  whenever  worthy,  should  be  placed 
upon  the  wall  space  or  in  the  corner  of  the  room  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  give  a  wholesome  effect.  A  well-planned, 
correctly  lettered  program  should  be  provided  for  every 
schoolroom,  and  should  be  placed  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to 


SCHOOLROOM  DECORATIONS         89 

interfere  in  any  way  with  the  pictures  or  with  the  real  deco- 
rations of  the  room.  It  may  be  placed  at  the  rear  of  the 
room,  because  it  is  not  meant  for  special  decorative  purposes, 
and  ought  not  to  divert  the  minds  of  the  children  during 
their  regular  study  hours.  All  work  honored  in  this  way 
should  represent  the  very  best  efforts  of  the  children,  thereby 
making  it  creditable  to  the  school  as  well.  All  of  this  work 
should  be  trimmed  before  it  is  mounted,  and  should  be  ar- 
ranged to  make  a  pleasing  exhibit. 

If  the  schoolroom  is  large  enough,  a  library  and  small 
reading-room  may  be  set  apart  in  one  corner.  A  good  book- 
case should  be  provided,  and  the  children  should  be  en- 
couraged to  make  the  necessary  book-ends  and  blotter  pads. 
The  necessary  space  may  be  set  off  by  curtains  of  neat 
design,  which  have  been  stenciled  by  the  pupils  under  the 
direction  of  the  teacher.  This  will  give  a  splendid  opportu- 
nity to  teach  border,  neatness,  proportion,  color,  harmony, 
and  good  taste.  A  home-made  rug  will  add  very  much  to 
the  attractiveness  of  the  setting,  and  the  children  will  find 
it  all  a  very  pleasing  enjoyment  and  a  means  of  educational 
advancement. 

If  a  district  is  able  to  provide  some  funds  for  decorative 
purposes,  good  pictures,  artistic  vases,  and  well-chosen 
pottery  should  be  provided.  It  is  very  much  better  to 
choose  one  good  picture,  well  framed,  than  to  choose  a  num- 
ber of  the  poorer  type.  We  must  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that 
the  children  must  enjoy  the  picture  through  the  story  it 
represents,  rather  than  through  the  picture  itself.  Pictures, 
then,  should  be  chosen  which  are  not  too  difficult  to  under- 
stand, and  which  represent  an  intimate  sympathy  with 
child-life  rather  than  those  which  represent  well-known 
paintings.  We  can  now  secure  reproductions  of  almost  all 
the  masterpieces  in  art  at  very  reasonable  prices.  And  be- 
cause of  this,  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  choos- 


ing  a  picture  which  will  appeal  to  the  children.  Whenever 
any  picture  is  chosen  for  the  schoolroom,  the  teacher  should 
at  once  procure  the  brief  story  of  its  life  setting,  and  should 
familiarize  the  children  with  this  so  that  they  may  under- 
stand the  motive  of  the  great  artist  who  produced  it.  Large 
pictures  are  very  much  better  for  wall  decorations  than 
small  ones,  because  the  lines  are  very  much  more  distinct 
and  may  be  easily  recognized  at  a  distance. 

There  are  many  pictures  which  are  equally  good  for  school- 
room decoration,  but  it  is  well,  before  choosing,  to  become 
familiar  with  the  subject,  through  some  such  authority  as 
Mrs.  L.  L.  Wilson's  Stories  on  Masterpieces  in  Art,  before 
making  a  final  selection.  Schreyer  is  an  artist  that  children 
easily  understand  in  subject-matter,  and  his  works  are 
splendid  in  composition,  with  excellent  settings  arranged  in 
light  and  dark  colors.  Lerolle's  Shepherd  Scenes  are  excellent, 
and  the  children  love  the  stories  connected  writh  them. 
Schreyer's  Arab  Scouts  represents  a  typical  Arabian  scene. 
The  cavalcade,  in  gay  Arabian  dress,  the  splendid  action  of 
the  horses,  appeal  to  the  imagination  of  the  child  and  stir  his 
appreciation  for  picturesqueness,  for  splendidness,  and  for 
the  adventurous  and  spectacular.  The  Arabian  chief  on  his 
horse  is  the  center  of  interest,  both  as  to  the  subject-matter 
and  to  composition.  The  splendid  spirited  animal,  with  his 
light,  high  step,  and  his  beautiful,  shining,  dappled  coat, 
stands  out  in  bold  relief  against  a  dark  background.  The 
other  figures  add  to  the  energy  and  action  of  the  whole  com- 
position, though  they  are  less  prominent  in  tone  as  they 
appear  only  in  the  distance.  The  robed  Arab  at  the  left  bal- 
ances the  mass  of  light  made  by  the  great  horse  of  the  chief. 
Notice  the  horizontal  division  of  space  —  about  one  third 
sky  and  two  thirds  ground  —  which  adds  material  interest 
to  the  composition  by  allowing  more  light,  thereby  giving 
more  character  to  the  scenery  which  appears  in  the  back- 


SCHOOLROOM  DECORATIONS        91 

ground.  Add  to  this  little  picture  study  the  motives  which 
caused  the  artists  to  give  expression  in  this  form,  and 
we  have  in  our  picture  real  personality  expressed  in  art. 
The  picture  given  may  not  be  one  most  desirable  for  the 
school,  but  the  plan  is  offered  simply  as  a  type-study  to  be 
considered  in  connection  with  any  picture  chosen. 

Before  any  picture  is  placed  the  wall  space  should  be 
studied  with  reference  to  size  and  proper  lighting  effect,  then 
suit  the  picture  to  the  wall  space  in  such  a  way  that  it  will 
not  look  overcrowded  nor  lost  in  the  vastness  of  its  surround- 
ings. ^Yhenever  possible,  pictures  should  be  hung  at  about 
the  eye  level,  because  this  gives  to  us  the  proper  vision.  If 
they  are  placed  above  the  blackboard,  the  bottom  should  be 
at  least  four  inches  above  the  moulding  and  they  should  be 
tilted  sufficiently  to  be  viewed  at  right  angles  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  room.  Suspend  all  pictures  from  the  moulding  by 
means  of  two  hooks,  using  a  wire  on  each  side,  thus  avoiding 
improper  alignment. 

If  the  teacher  is  uncertain  about  the  setting  she  should 
try  it  out  from  different  angles,  placing  the  picture  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  room  to  gain  the  necessary  information. 
Both  teacher  and  pupils  will  gain  much  information  from 
studying  pictures  on  the  walls  of  different  art  galleries  or  in 
art  windows  of  the  city,  and  such  a  plan  ought  to  be  en- 
couraged as  a  means  of  knowing  at  first  hand  the  symmetry 
and  the  harmony  which  are  found  in  art. 

Do  not  spoil  a  good  picture  by  poor  framing.  The  width 
of  the  frame,  the  color  and  design,  should  all  harmonize  with 
the  work  of  art.  Generally  speaking,  no  mat,  but  greater 
width  of  frame  is  to  be  desired.  Prints  in  sepia  as  well  as  the 
ordinary  carbons  should  be  framed  in  the  plainer  woods, 
while  colored  prints  adapt  themselves  better  to  a  gilt-finished 
frame  with  a  decorated  moulding.  These  prints,  however, 
represent  a  harmonious  design  when  they  are  framed  with 


92      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

mouldings  having  a  color  tone  harmonizing  with  the  tones 
in  the  picture  or  repeating  them.  It  is  always  well  to  have 
framing  done  by  an  artist  who  understands  this  work  in  all 
of  its  phases. 

Since  the  earliest  time  vases  have  been  used  for  decorative 
purposes,  and  when  well  chosen  and  artistically  placed  they 
still  hold  an  interesting  place  in  this  particular  field.  In 
this  creative  work  man  has  always  put  into  constructive 
form  the  ideals  of  his  mind,  and  the  beauty  in  it  lies  in  its 
symmetry,  its  harmony  in  coloring,  and  in  its  shape.  It  may 
be  said  that  this  particular  kind  of  art  appeals  less  to  chil- 
dren than  that  of  picture  study  and  design.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  pottery,  though  it  is  used  in  a  plainer  way  to 
represent  the  creative  genius.  It  would  be  well  perhaps  to 
provide  only  a  small  amount  of  each  for  the  ordinary  school- 
room, but  both  can  be  used  to  an  advantage  in  many  prac- 
tical ways,  and  ought  to  have  a  place  because  of  this  special 
quality. 

What  has  been  said  of  beautifying  the  schoolroom  applies 
also  to  the  beautifying  of  the  homes  of  the  neighborhood; 
greater  artistic  taste  tends  also  to  establish  a  more  aesthetic 
ideal,  and  altogether  has  a  wonderful  influence  over  the  eth- 
ical nature.  The  beautiful  and  the  good  go  hand  in  hand, 
though  specific  cases  have  been  cited  to  the  contrary.  It 
is  admitted  without  question  that  there  are  exceptions  to  all 
rules,  but  time  has  given  us  ample  proof  that  goodness  and 
greatness  in  man  are  linked  closely  with  the  beautiful  por- 
trayed in  his  life. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  best  means  of  making  the  child  love  his  home, 
love  his  school,  love  his  country? 

2.  Can  we  teach  about  the  good  and  the  beautiful  to  an  advantage  unless 
our  surroundings  portray  these  characteristics? 


SCHOOLROOM  DECORATIONS        93 

3.  France  lays  great  stress  in  its  public  schools  on  color  and  design  — 
What  effect  has  this  had  on  the  textile  fabrics  produced  by  that 
country? 

4.  Is  it  possible  that  color  effects  in  the  home  and  in  the  school  may  have 
some  effect  upon  the  dispositions  of  those  who  see  them  daily? 

5.  Why  does  a  beautiful  landscape  painting  appear  more  attractive  to 
the  average  individual  than  the  real  landscape  itself  as  it  is  endowed 
by  nature's  coloring? 


CHAPTER  X 

SELECTING  THE  TEACHER 

THE  most  important  element  necessary  to  school  success  is 
the  teacher.  She  represents  the  human  dynamo  that  con- 
verts the  energy  of  the  school  into  a  working  power.  Her 
personality  becomes  the  pervading  element  which  silently 
shapes  the  plastic  minds  of  those  who  look  to  her  each  day 
for  direction.  Truly  has  it  been  said,  "As  the  teacher  is,  so 
is  the  school."  As  she  thinks,  as  she  acts,  as  she  works  — 
so  will  the  school  follow  in  her  footsteps.  Especially  is  this 
true  in  the  elementary  school,  because  children  are  more 
susceptible  to  influences  and  stronger  in  their  power  of  imi- 
tation than  are  older  people. 

The  teacher's  work  in  the  schoolroom  not  only  directs  the 
lives  of  the  children,  but  it  becomes  a  strong  factor  in  shap- 
ing the  destiny  of  the  Nation,  because  as  the  children  think, 
act,  and  feel,  so  also  must  these  things  react  in  the  men  and 
women  a  little  older  grown.  The  importance  of  this  period, 
then,  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  school  as  a  destiny- 
making  machine-shop  must  not  be  underrated,  and  the 
teacher  as  a  pattern-maker  becomes  the  master  mechanic. 
No  business  firm  would  choose  a  novice  to  direct  its  techni- 
cal work  and  become  responsible  for  a  high-grade  product. 
The  same  applies  to  the  school  with  greater  significance,  be- 
cause human  lives  represent  the  product  being  shaped  and 
fashioned  by  this  educational  factory.  It  has  been  urged, 
and  rightly,  that  education  is  never-ending;  that  it  draws 
from  every  conceivable  source  which  affects  life  directly  or 
indirectly;  but,  after  all,  the  manner  in  which  these  things 
affect  the  individual  depends  upon  his  attitude  of  mind, 


SELECTING  THE  TEACHER  95 

which  attitude  is  fashioned  during  his  early  years.  If 
credit  is  to  be  given  to  the  school  for  its  part  in  shaping  our 
civilization,  it  must  be  held  responsible  for  a  high  grade  of 
workmanship.  To  do  this  the  trained  teacher  becomes  a 
necessity. 

There  is  an  old  adage  that  "teachers  are  born  and  not 
made";  but  modern  investigation  has  established  the  fact 
that  without  the  process  of  making,  the  teacher  must  re- 
main in  the  unskilled  class.  She  may  be  born  with  adap- 
tation for  such  work,  but  with  no  quickening  process  her 
adaptable  characteristics  may  remain  latent  potentialities 
which  have  not  been  converted  into  usable  power.  We  can- 
not deny  the  fact  that  a  small  number  have  attained  success 
without  having  had  the  advantages  of  a  professional  school. 
Such  prove  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule,  and,  had  the 
advantage  of  special  training  been  given  them,  a  greater 
measure  of  success  would  surely  have  resulted.  But  should 
this  ancient  belief  be  true,  the  number  of  public-school  teach- 
ers now  required  make  it  an  unsafe  practice  to  follow. 
Five  hundred  thousand  are  required  to  direct  the  work  in 
the  elementary  schools,  and  this  number  is  being  materially 
increased  each  year.  Such  a  body  of  skilled  workers  can  be 
had  only  by  providing  a  proper  means  for  technical  prepa- 
ration. 

This  was  clearly  conceived  a  number  of  years  ago  when  the 
Normal  School  was  organized  as  a  special  educational  agency 
for  training  teachers  in  the  art  of  schoolroom  management 
by  using  the  practice  school  to  establish  well-defined  prin- 
ciples of  teaching.  The  worth  of  these  institutions  is  best 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  they  have  been  multiplied  in 
number  by  most  of  the  States,  and  that  they  have  been 
given  larger  and  larger  support  each  year.  Moreover, 
although  the  number  of  teachers  prepared  in  these  schools 
has  increased  many  fold,  the  demand  continues  to  be  greater 


90      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

than  the  supply.  The  importance  of  this  work  has  been  so 
fully  established  that  some  four  hundred  colleges  and  uni- 
versities have  organized  departments  of  education  to  supple- 
ment the  work  done  by  the  normal  schools  and  by  teachers' 
colleges. 

Speaking  recently  before  a  large  audience,  Commissioner 
P.  P.  Claxton,  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Education,  made 
the  following  statement: 

The  work  of  the  Normal  School  for  professionally  trained  teach- 
ers is  so  important,  so  valuable,  so  necessary,  that  we  should  estab- 
lish a  sufficient  number  of  State  Normal  Schools  to  provide  every 
rural  school  with  a  professionally  trained  teacher,  even  if  we  have 
to  take  the  necessary  money  to  do  this  from  the  state  common 
school  fund.  In  the  end  this  would  give  a  better  policy  of  business 
economy  than  our  present  short-sighted  policy,  which  is  expensive 
and  which  sorely  neglects  our  rural  school  in  the  matter  of  properly 
trained  teachers.  This  is  evident  by  the  fact  that  there  are  over 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  juvenile  teachers  teaching  in  the 
rural  schools  of  our  country  at  this  time,  with  less  than  high  school 
education  and  with  no  professional  training. 

In  commending  our  rural  school  improvement,  Dr.  J.  L. 
McBrien,  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Education,  said: 

The  only  way  to  have  good  rural  schools  is  to  have  better  rural 
teachers.  The  only  way  to  have  better  teachers  is  to  require  all 
who  aspire  to  teach  to  make  due  preparation. 

Colonel  Parker,  who  has  been  recognized  as  a  great  "teacher 
of  teachers,"  expressed  his  feelings  in  the  matter  as  follows: 

What  priceless  legacy  can  we  leave  to  the  millions  yet  to  be  than 
to  make  it  possible  for  our  spiritual  descendants  to  be  so  educated 
and  so  trained  that  they  will,  under  God,  effectually  work  out  the 
destiny  of  this  mighty  continent,  and  through  it  the  destiny  of  all 
humanity. 

Because  of  the  new  demands  made  upon  the  school,  sev- 
eral of  the  States  have  recently  taken  advanced  steps  by 
passing  laws  requiring  all  teachers  to  have  some  professional 


SELECTING  THE  TEACHER  97 

training.  Usually  provisions  are  made  to  increase  the  re- 
quirement gradually,  so  that  in  time  a  high  standard  of  effi- 
ciency will  be  reached.  Very  few  normal  schools  have 
reached  the  limit  of  their  capacity,  and  many  more  teachers 
could  be  handled  each  year  by  the  institutions  already  estab- 
lished. The  great  need,  therefore,  is  a  general  recognition 
of  the  important  position  which  the  school  holds,  made  man- 
ifest through  a  demand  by  the  people  that  only  specially 
qualified  and  highly  skilled  teachers  be  given  charge  of  this 
important  work. 

School  directors  have  a  right  to  look  to  the  normal  schools 
of  their  State  to  train  teachers  in  a  manner  to  satisfy  all  rea- 
sonable expectations.  They  have  a  right  to  depend  upon 
these  institutions  to  furnish  an  honest  estimate  of  the  ability 
and  the  personal  characteristics  of  the  teacher  who  makes 
application  for  a  position.  They  have  a  right  to  expect  a 
reasonable  measure  of  success  from  this  specially  prepared 
teacher,  provided  of  course  that  she  is  given  the  support  of 
the  Board  and  the  cooperation  of  the  patrons  of  the  district. 

There  are  certain  personal  qualities  which  the  teacher 
ought  to  possess,  among  which  should  be  mentioned  a  per- 
fect and  healthy  body,  a  pleasing  voice,  and  a  happy  dis- 
position. She  should  be  painstaking  and  orderly  in  her 
habits;  honest  and  truthful,  patient  and  tactful.  Her  char- 
acter must  be  above  reproach.  She  must  possess  a  love  for 
children.  The  teacher  becomes  a  strong  personal  factor  in 
the  child's  education,  and  the  lessons  are  individualized 
through  her  influence.  If  she  is  strong  and  forceful  in 
character,  the  lessons  will  take  on  the  spirit  of  her  individ- 
uality. If  she  is  courteous  in  manner,  the  school  is  sure 
to  take  on  an  atmosphere  of  courtesy.  These  qualities  in 
the  teacher  beget  interest  in  the  hardest  task,  and  add  a 
charm  to  the  facts  on  the  printed  page.  They  create  greater 
desire  for  knowledge  and  inspire  the  pupils  to  greater  effort. 


98      HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

The  man  of  Galilee  was  addressed  by  the  secretary  of  the 
Jewish  Sanhedrin  as  the  "Great  Teacher."  The  "Book" 
emphasized  His  work  as  a  Teacher,  rather  than  as  a  Preacher. 
We  find  many  references  such  as  the  following:  "And  He 
taught  the  multitude";  "He  entered  the  synagogue  on  the 
Sabbath  Day  and  taught  the  people";  "And  He  taught  his 
disciples,  saying,  —  "  Through  His  work  we  have  exemplified 
the  great  desire  to  administer  to  others;  we  discern  the  per- 
sistent effort  which  He  exercised  in  presenting  His  lessons  of 
truth,  and  we  feel  the  joy  of  the  unrequited  love  which  He 
bore  for  all  mankind.  His  teachings  suggested  pedagogical 
principles  which  are  worthy  of  emulation  by  the  teacher  of 
to-day.  The  work  which  He  wrought  as  a  teacher  two  thou- 
sand years  ago  stands  as  an  everlasting  monument  to  the 
training  of  mind  and  heart,  for  every  individual  of  the  pres- 
ent time  has  been  directly  or  indirectly  influenced  by  the 
lessons  He  taught.  His  work  is  not  offered  by  way  of  com- 
parison, but  rather  as  a  means  of  inspiration  for  the  im- 
provement of  this  work  which  we  have  in  charge.  There  is, 
however,  a  relationship  between  the  two,  because  the  achieve- 
ment in  each  instance  involves  a  larger  and  a  more  complete 
life. 

If  the  teacher  possesses  vision,  she  will  bring  to  the  en- 
tire school  a  greater  appreciation  of  their  own  community. 
She  will  instill  in  the  minds  of  her  pupils  a  high  regard  for 
those  who  have  made  wise  provisions  for  school  advantages. 
She  will  imbue  them  with  a  greater  love  for  their  country, 
and  give  them  a  better  understanding  and  a  greater  appre- 
ciation of  government.  She  will  impress  them  with  a  high 
regard  for  good  and  noble  citizenship.  She  will  point  out  to 
them  the  value  of  friendship,  and  the  joy  that  may  come 
through  human  association.  These  things  may  be  made  in- 
cidental to  regular  assigned  lessons,  but  they  can  never  be 
accidental  when  the  good  teacher  is  in  charge. 


SELECTING  THE  TEACHER  99 

The  dress  and  taste  of  the  teacher  has  not  been  mentioned, 
but  it  cannot  be  altogether  overlooked.  Neatness  and 
cleanliness  adds  to  personality  as  well  as  to  attractiveness. 
The  teacher's  taste  should  be  wholesome  and  should  never 
represent  the  extreme.  She  should  keep  in  the  foreground 
the  old  adage,  "Example  is  greater  than  precept."  Her 
social  customs  ought  to  be  worthy  of  imitation.  A  goodly 
address,  an  obliging  manner,  and  a  courteous  attitude,  all 
add  to  her  charm  at  school  as  well  as  at  a  social  gathering. 
Words  of  advice  given  by  such  a  teacher  will  be  strikingly 
more  forceful  than  those  of  one  who  simply  says,  "Don't  do 
as  I  do,  but  do  as  I  tell  you  to  do."  No  child  should  ever  be 
compelled  to  say  of  his  teacher  under  his  breath,  "How  can 
I  hear  what  you  say,  when  what  you  are  is  ringing  in  my 
ears?" 

Every  experienced  School  Board  member  knows  how  nec- 
essary it  is  to  investigate  thoroughly  the  merit  of  a  teacher 
before  giving  her  employment.  She  should  never  be  selected 
for  personal  qualities  alone,  nor  should  she  be  chosen  be- 
cause of  the  legal  papers  she  holds.  The  School  Board  must 
see  to  it  that  she  possesses  both  the  qualities  and  the  quali- 
fications most  to  be  desired.  But  little  dependence  can  be 
placed  on  letters  of  recommendation  which  an  applicant 
carries  around.  Often  the  teacher  with  the  largest  number 
of  letters  is  the  one  not  to  be  employed.  Certainly  a  candi- 
date carrying  such  letters  as  the  following  ought  not  to  be 
given  serious  consideration: 

WALKERVILLE  SCHOOL  DISTRICT 
HUDSON  COUNTY 

To  whom  it  may  concern: 

This  is  to  say  that  the  bearer,  Mary  Alpaugh,  taught  in  our 
district  last  year  for  a  term  of  six  months.  She  possesses  a  good 
education,  has  taught  in  a  number  of  places,  is  a  young  woman  of 
high  Christian  character,  has  an  attractive  personal  manner,  and 


100    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

tries  hard  to  please.     The  trustees  of  this  district  wish  her  success 
in  any  work  she  may  in  the  future  undertake.    For  the  Board, 

JOHN  BOARDMAN,  Clerk. 


A  teacher  carrying  such  a  recommendation  might  have 
been  dismissed  for  incompetency  as  a  teacher,  and  every- 
thing said  in  the  letter  still  be  true.  The  letter  tells  nothing 
that  a  school  board  wants  to  know.  A  safe  plan  to  follow  is 
to  consult  with  the  County  Superintendent,  and  to  secure 
personal  letters,  written  directly  to  the  Board,  from  those 
who  know  of  the  applicant's  training  and  success  and  are 
qualified  to  judge  of  her  worth  and  who  are  willing  to  give 
an  honest  judgment  of  the  applicant's  adaptation  and  abil- 
ity. When  in  need  of  a  teacher  it  is  an  advantage  to  write 
to  the  President  or  Appointment  Secretary  of  one  of  the 
state  normal  schools,  and  ask  them  to  recommend  instruc- 
tors who  possess  such  qualifications  as  are  needed  in  any 
given  school.  All  such  schools  make  it  their  business  to 
answer  such  requests.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  School  Board 
to  employ  every  available  means  to  secure  a  desirable 
teacher  before  applying  to  a  teachers'  agency  for  candi- 
dates. The  skilled  teacher  should  never  be  compelled  to 
seek  employment  through  a  bureau  of  this  kind,  because  it 
does  not  afford  the  best  means  of  furnishing  first-hand  in- 
formation to  those  charged  with  the  selecting  of  a  teacher. 
When  there  is  a  complete  standardization  of  teachers  and  a 
better  organization  for  the  administration  of  our  educational 
plan,  relying  upon  teachers'  agencies  will  be  unnecessary. 
But  till  then  it  may  have  to  be  resorted  to  when  an  emer- 
gency arises. 

On  receiving  visits  from  teachers  desiring  a  position  School 
Board  members  should  be  careful  not  to  make  individual 
promises.  No  member  should  promise  a  teacher  to  vote  for 
her.  The  place  to  decide  such  matters  is  in  School  Board 


SELECTING  THE  TEACHER  101 

meeting,  and  after  all  of  the  evidence  has  been  examined 
and  the  different  applicants  discussed  and  their  papers  and 
credentials  compared. 

All  of  the  individual  qualities  which  have  been  mentioned 
as  desirable  in  teachers  are  not  likely  to  be  found  in  one 
single  individual;  it  will  therefore  be  necessary  to  exercise 
good  judgment  in  determining  just  how  fully  the  standard 
may  be  reached.  In  this  connection,  too,  school  officers 
must  recognize  the  necessity  of  paying  a  larger  salary  to  the 
highly  skilled  teacher.  The  education  of  such  a  teacher  has 
been  more  costly  than  that  of  those  less  highly  trained,  and 
a  longer  time  has  been  spent  in  securing  it;  consequently,  in 
fairness  to  her,  these  things  must  be  taken  into  account. 
Everywhere  in  the  industrial  field  this  principle  is  recog- 
nized, and  the  wage  scale  of  the  skilled  mechanic  is  increased 
proportionally  to  his  ability.  This  has  not  been  practiced 
in  our  schools,  largely  because  school  officers  have  not  been 
able  to  measure  in  advance  the  worth  of  the  teacher  they 
employ.  This  they  must  be  able  to  do  in  the  future,  else 
some  other  official  means  will  be  employed  by  the  public  to 
insure  less  frequent  mistakes.  The  salary  paid  must  govern 
school  officers  in  the  quality  of  service  which  they  have  a 
right  to  expect;  on  the  other  hand,  the  teacher's  ability  to 
serve  must  govern  her  in  the  compensation  which  she  has  a 
right  to  demand.  A  fixed  salary  basis,  therefore,  does  not 
allow  the  necessary  flexibility,  and  cannot  be  followed  to 
advantage,  because  the  amount  paid  to  a  good  teacher  sets 
the  standard  for  the  one  who  is  employed  later,  but  who  is 
less  efficient,  and  vice  versa. 

When  a  teacher  has  been  selected  by  the  school,  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  produce  conditions  in  the  district 
which  will  increase  her  chances  for  succeeding.  If  no  "teach- 
erage"  exists  she  should  be  provided  with  the  best  possi- 
ble boarding  place,  given  a  good  quiet  room  with  means  for 


102     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

heating  it,  and  she  should  receive  the  strongest  cooperation 
in  her  plan  of  work.  Without  this,  success  is  minimized; 
with  it,  a  large  measure  of  success  is  assured.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  no  individual  ever  succeeds  alone;  and 
this  is  doubly  true  of  the  teacher  who  is  called  upon  to  sat- 
isfy all  families  of  the  neighborhood  whose  children  she 
teaches  each  day.  Every  commendation  of  the  home  results 
in  better  work  in  the  school.  Every  appreciation  of  ap- 
proval makes  easier  the  daily  tasks.  Every  agency  within 
the  district  can  become  a  positive  force  for  increasing  the 
school  efficiency;  and  the  value  of  all  this  turns  back  to  those 
who  have  helped  to  create  it.  The  responsibilities,  then,  of 
school  officers  and  of  patrons  do  not  cease  when  the  teacher 
has  been  employed;  but,  if  the  choice  has  been  a  wise  one,  it 
will  be  easier  to  ally  the  influence  of  the  neighborhood  in 
helping  to  make  the  school  the  pride  of  the  community. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  special  points  of  advantage  which  may  be  gained  from  a 
personal  interview  with  a  teacher  who  is  an  applicant  for  your  school? 

2.  In  investigating  a  teacher  for  her  real  worth  and  adaptation,  do  you 
believe  ordinary  recommendations  reliable?  —  Would  you  get  more 
reliable  information  by  asking  for  personal  letters  from  those  who  are 
qualified  to  judge  of  the  teacher's  work  at  first  hand? 

3.  What  special  characteristics  in  teachers  are  most  important  when 
school  trustees  are  weighing  the  worth  of  candidates  to  be  selected?  — 
Would  it  not  be  well  for  trustees  to  make  a  list  of  a  number  of  qualities 
which  they  would  expect  in  a  teacher  suited  to  direct  a  school  properly? 

4.  What  plan  has  your  community  for  working  with  the  school  in  the 
interest  of  better  school  advantages  for  your  children? 

5.  To  what  extent  will  it  add  to  a  teacher's  value  if  she  has  a  good  board- 
ing place,  with  pleasant  surroundings? 

6.  Should  teachers  be  paid  according  to  their  personal  worth  and  the 
service  they  are  able  to  render  to  the  community,  or  should  they  be 
paid  in  accordance  with  a  set  salary  schedule?  —  How  can  this  be 
made  to  apply  to  teachers  who  have  already  served  the  community 
well  for  a  school  year?    How  to  new  teachers? 


CHAPTER  XI 

SPECIAL  OFFICIAL  DUTIES 

THE  School  Trustees  usually  accept  the  work  of  this  office 
as  a  matter  of  duty.  They  do  it  because  they  are  interested 
in  education,  and  are  willing  to  do  their  part  in  advancing 
the  community  welfare.  To  serve  well  involves  an  en- 
croachment upon  their  time  which  may  involve  a  considera- 
ble personal  loss.  In  order  to  obviate  this  to  the  largest 
possible  degree  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  very  best  organ- 
ization and  the  best  plan  for  dispatching  business,  use  the 
minimum  amount  of  time,  and  yet  secure  the  maximum 
amount  of  efficiency.  Strictly  business  principles  should 
therefore  be  the  guiding  influences  in  all  official  acts,  and  a 
working  basis  should  be  agreed  upon  as  a  guide  for  each 
member. 

In  order  to  be  certain  that  no  lawful  requirements  be 
overlooked,  it  is  well  to  work  out  a  school  calendar  based 
upon  the  official  board  duties  set  forth  in  the  School  Code. 
It  should  take  every  item  in  turn  as  it  is  specified,  and  with 
the  calendar  date  in  regular  order.  To  illustrate  this  the 
following  suggestion  is  made: 


YEARLY  SCHOOL  CALENDAR 
1919 

July        1.  Opening  of  School  Y?ar. 
July      10.  Regular  Quarterly  Meeting  of  the  Board. 
July      15.  Clerk's  Report  to  County  Superintendent. 
July      17.  Letting  contract  for  improvement  of  school  premises.   Bids  open. 
July      20.  Contract  for  yearly  supply  of  fuel.     Bids  open. 
Aug.       1.  Approved  budget  presented  to  County  Auditor. 
Aug.     20.  Transportation  contracts  for  the  year.     Bids  open.     Contract 

for  janitor  service.     Bids  open. 
Sept.     13.  Inspection  of  school  premises  for  opening  of  school. 


104     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

1919 

Sept.     15.  Opening  of  school. 
Sept.     26.  Visiting  Day  for  first  month. 
Oct.      10.  Monthly  Meeting  for  drawing  teacher's  warrant,  paying  monthly 

bills  and  janitor  service. 
Oct.      31.  Visiting  Day  for  second  month. 
Nov.       7.  Monthly    Meeting    for    drawing    teacher's    warrant,    paying 

monthly  bills  and  janitor  service. 
Nov.     27.  Thanksgiving  Holiday. 
Dec.       5.  Monthly  Meeting  for  drawing  teacher's  salary,  paying  monthly 

bills  and  janitor  service. 
Dec.      24.  Holiday  Vacation  begins  Wednesday  evening. 

1920. 

Jan.        5.  Holiday  Session  closes  Monday  morning. 
Jan.      16.  Monthly  Meeting  for  paying  teacher's  salary,  monthly  bills, 

and  janitor  service. 

Feb.        7.  County  Trustees  Meeting  called  by  County  Superintendent. 
Feb.      12.  Special  School  Program  —  Lincoln's  Birthday. 
Feb.      13.  Special  Visiting  Day. 
Feb.      13.  Monthly  Meeting  for  paying  teacher's  salary,  monthly  bills,  and 

janitor  service. 

Feb.      14.  Valentine  Program,  8.00  P.M. 
Feb.      22.  Patriotic  Program,  Washington's  Birthday. 
Feb.      24.  Posting  School  Election  Notices. 
March    6.  School  Election. 
March  12.  Monthly  Meeting,  drawing  teacher's  warrant,  paying  monthly 

bills,  and  janitor  service. 
March  26.  Easter  Program,  Friday  afternoon. 
April      3.  Special  Meeting  for  making  of  Annual  School  Budget. 
April      9.  Regular  Monthly  Meeting  for  drawing  teacher's  warrant,  paying 

monthly  bills,  janitor  service. 
May       1.  Taking  School  Census. 
May       7.  Monthly  Meeting  for  drawing  teacher's  warrant,  paying  monthly 

bills,  janitor  service. 
May     15.  Special  meeting  for  approval  of  Clerk's  School  Census  Report. 

Saturday  evening. 

May     28.  School  Closing  Exercise  —  Friday  morning  10.00  A.M. 
Community  Day  Dinner  at  Schoolhouse  —  Noon. 
Public  Meeting  for  drawing  teacher's  warrant,  paying  all  unpaid 

bills,  janitor  service.  —  1.00  o'clock. 
Picnic  —  2.00  o'clock. 

Inspection  of  building  and  premises  —  4.00  o'clock. 
June       1.  Report  of  special  tax  to  County  Superintendent  and  County 

Auditor. 
June     30.  Close  of  School  Year. 


SPECIAL  OFFICIAL  DUTIES  105 

The  above  calendar  can  be  varied  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  any  State,  any  county,  or  any  school  district.  Of  course, 
the  definite  lawful  dates  would  not  change  from  year  to  year, 
but  the  calendar  could  be  made  flexible  in  arranging  for  spe- 
cial programs  and  for  special  patriotic  duties.  Such  a  cal- 
endar will  be  found  most  valuable  in  preventing  the  Board 
from  overlooking  any  important  duties,  because  each  mem- 
ber may  have  a  copy  of  it  for  his  own  personal  use.  It  is 
important  that  reports  be  made  at  the  proper  time  and  in 
accordance  with  the  law.  Full  instructions  can  always  be 
had  from  the  County  Superintendent  if  it  is  not  clearly 
specified  in  the  School  Code.  All  bills  should  be  audited 
and  paid  promptly.  This  necessitates  the  regular  monthly 
meeting  of  the  Board,  though  this  can  be  done  at  evening 
time  and  quickly  disposed  of  if  there  is  a  definite  under- 
standing and  a  regular  plan  for  the  discharge  of  all  business. 

It  is  always  a  good  policy  in  spending  public  money  in  any 
large  amount  to  provide  means  for  use  of  bids  and  contracts. 
In  many  States  this  is  required  by  law,  but  even  when  this 
is  not  required  it  offers  a  safeguard  to  officers  and  provides 
greatest  assurance  for  the  wise  expenditure  of  public  money. 
This  should  apply  to  buildings,  improvements,  annual  sup- 
ply of  fuel,  books  and  apparatus,  and  any  other  expenditure 
of  money  amounting  to  fifty  dollars  or  more. 

At  the  time  when  the  Board  of  Trustees  complete  their 
regular  organization,  they  should  proceed  at  once  to  make 
rules  and  regulations  governing  their  official  acts  having  to 
do  with  the  use  of  the  schoolhouse  for  other  purposes  than 
the  regular  school  work.  They  should  provide  for  a  definite 
plan  of  admitting  children  from  other  school  districts,  and 
the  general  transportation  of  pupils  when  this  is  necessary. 
They  should  agree  upon  a  plan  for  making  the  necessary 
legal  notices  required  by  law.  If  there  is  a  plan  whereby 
the  local  district  must  share  with  the  other  districts  in  main- 


106     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

taining  a  high  school,  definite  plans  should  be  worked  out 
and  agreed  upon  both  in  finances  and  in  government.  All 
reports  required  by  law  should  be  made  out  by  the  Clerk 
and  officially  examined  and  approved  by  all  the  Trustees 
at  an  authorized  meeting.  All  state,  county,  and  district 
funds  should  be  kept  in  regular  order,  and  should  be  paid 
out  in  accordance  with  law.  The  books  should  be  audited 
at  regular  intervals  by  the  entire  Board  of  Trustees. 

It  is  important  that  the  Trustees  meet  with  the  teacher 
at  the  opening  of  school,  and  give  her  assurance  of  their  co- 
operation and  the  unanimous  support  of  the  Board  of  Trus- 
tees. At  this  time  definite  directions  should  be  given  to 
the  teacher  concerning  supplies  and  material,  and  how  she 
should  proceed  in  case  of  need  to  procure  the  necessities  for 
additional  school  materials  and  service.  She  should  be 
given  charge  of  the  janitor  work,  and  assured  that  the  Board 
of  Trustees  approve  of  cleanliness  and  the  very  best  sani- 
tary conditions  in  the  interest  of  good  health.  A  monthly 
meeting  should  be  announced  to  be  held  at  the  close  of  each 
month  for  the  purpose  of  auditing  promptly  all  bills  and 
drawing  warrants  for  monthly  salaries.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  teacher  may  have  made  her  financial  plans 
with  the  understanding  that  her  monthly  warrant  will  be 
drawn  regularly,  and  that  it  would  be  very  disconcerting  as 
well  as  disappointing  to  her  if  the  Board  should  fail  in  this. 
No  debt,  however  small,  should  be  overlooked  in  the  audit- 
ing of  the  monthly  accounts.  It  will  be  found  much  easier 
as  well  as  much  more  satisfactory  to  be  prompt  with  all  pay- 
ments, and  the  district  that  does  this  will  soon  gain  a  repu- 
tation for  its  businesslike  methods.  It  is  important  for 
every  district  to  keep  on  a  good  financial  basis,  and  to  be  able 
to  pay  cash  for  all  of  its  current  expenses.  There  is  a  limit 
of  indebtedness  provided  by  the  laws  of  most  States,  and 
this  must  be  adhered  to  in  providing  for  extensive  improve- 


SPECIAL  OFFICIAL  DUTIES  107 

ments  which  would  necessitate  bond  issue  or  special  current 
indebtedness. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  and  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  several  States  provide  that  the  right  of  petition 
shall  not  be  abridged.  This  is  a  means  which  the  people 
have  of  expressing  their  wishes  and  desires,  and  is  necessary 
in  a  democratic  form  of  government.  School  Trustees 
should,  therefore,  be  willing  to  give  consideration  to  any  pe- 
tition, presented  to  them  by  the  patrons  of  the  district  or 
by  the  pupils  of  the  school,  setting  forth  their  recommenda- 
tions or  requests. 

All  States  make  special  provisions  for  the  care  of  de- 
fective youth,  and  it  usually  falls  upon  the  school  district 
officers  to  see  to  it  that  the  provisions  of  law  are  made  effec- 
tive. If  there  are  any  unfortunate  children  of  this  character 
in  the  district  it  is  important  that  the  matter  be  taken  up 
by  the  County  Superintendent,  in  order  that  some  provision 
be  made  for  their  proper  care  and  education  through  the 
means  which  the  State  has  provided.  The  names  of  such 
children  should  appear  on  the  Clerk's  annual  report,  with 
proper  notations  and  explanations,  as  provided  for  in  the 
School  Code.  There  are  special  forms  furnished  to  the  dis- 
tricts for  the  making  of  all  reports,  and  any  Clerk  can  secure 
a  supply  by  writing  to  the  County  Superintendent  if  these 
are  not  found  in  the  regular  supply  envelopes  which  are 
usually  sent  out  at  the  oj>ening  of  the  school  year. 

The  lawful  contract  should  be  made  and  signed  in  tripli- 
cate on  the  day  of  the  owning  of  the  school,  if  it  has  not 
been  arranged  before,  and  one  copy  retained  by  each  of  the 
contracting  parties  and  the  third  forwarded  to  the  County 
Suj>erintendent  of  Schools.  It  is  important  that  the  teacher 
keep  the  daily  register  properly,  because  upon  the  accuracy 
of  this  depends  the  amount  of  school  revenue  which  comes 
to  the  district  in  many  States.  The  Directors  must  see  that 


108    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

this  is  properly  kept,  and  that  the  teacher  makes  all  reports 
required  by  law  to  the  County  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
These  reports  must  be  accurate,  and  often  must  be  approved 
by  the  Board  of  Trustees  before  they  can  be  accepted  by  the 
county  officer.  It  is  important  to  see  that  the  teacher's 
certificate  is  registered  in  the  county,  because  the  same  must 
be  valid  or  the  district  jeopardizes  its  revenues. 

Specimen  copies  of  all  the  forms  used  in  connection  with 
school  work  is  usually  found  at  the  back  of  the  School  Code. 
These  are  usually  numbered  in  accordance  with  the  number 
forms  on  the  regular  sheet,  and  can  be  ordered  from  the 
County  Superintendent  when  needed.  Many  of  these  forms 
are  used  only  occasionally,  and  may  not  be  found  in  the  sup- 
ply envelope  which  the  County  Superintendent  usually  sends 
to  the  Clerk  at  the  opening  of  the  school  year.  Each  Trus- 
tee should  be  supplied  with  a  School  Code  and  should  be 
familiar  with  its  requirements.  In  most  States  these  are 
furnished  without  cost  to  School  Trustees,  and  may  be  had 
through  the  County  Superintendent's  Office. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  plan  of  auditing  is  best  adapted  to  your  district  which   may 
serve  to  protect  the  school  officers  and  the  district's  interests? 

2.  What  advantage  is  there  in  providing  a  working  basis  for  the  gen- 
eral government  of  all  official  acts? 

3.  What  weakness  may  be  found  in  the  constitutional  provision  giving 
the  people  the  right  to  petition? 

4.  What  personal  qualities  and  characteristics  should  one  have  to  qual- 
ify him  for  the  office  of  School  Trustee? 

5.  How  can  a  school  calendar  be  made  to  serve  as  a  labor-saving  de- 
vice for  school  officers? 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 

THE  daily  program  is  as  essential  to  a  good  school  as  a  sched- 
ule of  trains  is  to  a  railway  system.  Each  must  be  carefully 
organized  and  run  according  to  the  schedule.  Many  adap- 
tations to  circumstances  are  necessary,  and  changes  must  be 
made.  The  daily  program  is  a  means  to  an  end.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  systematize  the  work  of  each  school  day  in  such  a 
way  as  to  bring  about  the  best  results,  and  enable  the  teacher 
and  pupils  to  do  the  most  work  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  energy  in  the  time  given.  It  is  not  a  virtue  to  make  a 
pupil  work  hard  when  the  same  result  may  be  obtained  by 
an  easy  method.  This  is  an  age  in  which  expediency  and 
speed  are  necessary.  Pupils  should  do  their  work  thoroughly, 
but  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  shortest  solution  of  an 
arithmetic  problem  is  the  best  way. 

It  has  been  almost  a  custom  for  rural  teachers  to  follow 
the  daily  program  used  by  their  predecessors  the  year  be- 
fore. This  is  a  questionable  method  to  follow,  for  two  rea- 
sons: First,  the  teacher  finds  that  she  can  run  the  school  by 
that  program  and  never  tries  to  make  a  better  one.  Second, 
the  program  may  be  wholly  unsuited  to  the  groups  of  chil- 
dren in  the  school.  The  personnel  of  the  school  may  have 
changed  entirely.  The  removal  of  a  single  family,  especially 
if  it  be  one  in  which  there  are  a  large  number  of  children  of 
school  age,  modifies  the  needs  and  conditions  of  the  school. 
New  subjects  may  be  introduced,  such  as  agriculture,  do- 
mestic science,  domestic  art,  and  manual  training.  An 
evaluation  and  comparison  of  the  different  subjects  in  the 
course  of  study  will  result  in  giving  less  time  to  some  than 


110     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

was  formerly  given,  and  more  time  to  others  whose  impor- 
tance is  newly  recognized.  It  does  not  require  so  much  time 
to  teach  arithmetic  since  it  is  no  longer  practical  to  teach 
partial  payments,  and,  of  several  methods  of  computing 
interest,  the  shortest  approved  method  is  sufficient. 

A  successful  daily  program  can  be  made  out  only  by  the 
teacher  who  is  working  with  the  children  at  the  time  the 
program  is  to  be  used.  She  may  get  suggestions  from  her 
predecessors,  or  from  books,  but  all  this  she  must  modify  to 
fit  her  pupils'  needs.  If  she  is  not  capable  of  doing  this,  she 
is  not  to  be  entrusted  with  the  shaping  of  the  lives  in  her 
charge.  There  follows  in  this  chapter  a  list  of  factors  which 
should  be  considered  in  making  out  a  daily  program.  They 
will  vary  in  importance  in  different  schools  according  to  needs 
and  conditions. 

The  pupil's  personal  interest  is  the  most  important  factor 
in  any  school,  but  it  is  often  wholly  neglected.  There  should 
be  careful  study  of  the  individual  pupil  by  the  teacher.  She 
should  learn  his  personal  needs  by  studying  him  as  he  is  in 
other  environments  than  the  school;  especially  should  she 
acquaint  herself  with  his  home  life.  What  are  his  ambi- 
tions? What  are  the  prospects  of  help  from  the  parents  to 
develop  his  aptitudes?  .What  ideals  are  set  up  for  him  to 
follow?  These  are  questions  which  every  teacher  should 
try  to  answer  in  order  to  give  the  greatest  service  to  each 
pupil  in  her  school.  The  writer  once  experienced  the  great- 
est difficulty  with  a  pupil,  who,  though  apparently  normal 
in  other  respects,  failed  to  articulate  the  easiest  words.  The 
home  was  visited  and  the  mother  found  to  have  a  hare-lip. 
Knowing  this,  the  teacher  not  only  had  greater  sympathy 
for  the  pupil,  but  made  special  arrangements  to  help  him. 
Another  pupil,  considered  dull  because  he  had  read  in  the 
same  grade  for  two  years,  was  doing  wonderful  things  in  a 
mechanical  way  outside  of  school.  The  work  offered  to  him 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  111 

at  school  had  failed  to  interest  him.  If  some  construction 
work  had  been  provided  which  would  have  required  the 
application  of  principles  and  content  of  other  subjects,  he 
would  have  become  interested  in  those  subjects.  A  motive 
for  studying  any  subject  may  be  found  if  we  know  the  pu- 
pil's immediate  interest. 

We  may  best  classify  a  pupil  after  learning  all  we  can 
about  his  heredity,  environment,  and  natural  interests.  He 
should  then  work  in  the  grade  which  will  help  him  most 
according  to  his  individual  needs.  It  will  be  a  class  in  which 
he  finds  work  to  interest  him,  work  which  he  may  do  with  a 
normal  expenditure  of  energy  and  without  repeating  what 
he  has  failed  to  do  before.  If  a  child  is  a  poor  reader,  it  will 
not  improve  his  reading  to  read  again  the  books  he  has 
already  read,  or  heard  other  classes  read.  He  should  have 
new,  but  not  more  advanced  subject-matter.  The  simplest 
way  to  avoid  repetition  is  to  supply  supplementary  readers. 
Every  rural  school  should  have  supplementary  books,  es- 
pecially in  reading,  geography,  and  history,  and  these  should 
always  be  good,  interesting  books. 

Classification  by  grades  is  too  often  an  arbitrary  or  diplo- 
matic move  on  the  part  of  the  departing  teacher.  Hoping 
to  leave  a  good  impression,  she  promotes  all  the  pupils  in  the 
school.  This  is  a  most  discouraging  state  of  affairs  for  the 
new  teacher  to  face.  It  is  much  better  for  her,  after  finding 
out  by  fair  tests  that  a  boy  cannot  do  the  work  of  the  grade 
to  which  he  has  been  passed,  to  talk  the  matter  over  with 
his  parents.  She  should  .not  say  very  much  about  grades, 
but  give  the  boy  work  he  can  do  and  be  interested  in.  The 
real  proof  of  the  pupil's  work  is  his  ability  to  do  it. 

In  schools  which  are  maintained  for  approximately  nine 
months,  the  length  of  the  year  will  not  enter  to  any  extent 
as  a  factor  into  the  problem  of  the  daily  program.  In  schools 
of  seven  months  or  less,  some  subjects  will  have  to  be  omitted 


112     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

altogether  or  the  length  of  the  recitation  reduced  to  an  ab- 
surd minimum.  School  ordinarily  opens  at  nine  o'clock  and 
closes  at  four,  with  fifteen  minutes  out  in  the  morning  and 
afternoon,  and  one  hour  for  the  noon  intermission.  This 
leaves  five  and  one  half  hours  for  school  work.  Pupils  in 
the  first  three  grades  should  spend  not  more  than  three  and 
one  half  hours  in  actual  work.  A  large  portion  of  this  time 
should  be  given  to  hand-work  and  such  other  school  activi- 
ties as  do  not  necessitate  the  pupil's  sitting  in  his  seat  —  for 
example,  the  dramatization  of  stories.  This  is  of  special 
importance  in  rural  schools  when  the  younger  children  may 
not  recite  often,  nor  more  than  for  a  few  minutes.  And,  be- 
cause proper  seats  are  not  provided  for  them,  it  should  be 
allowed  them  to  go  home  earlier  than  four  o'clock,  and  to 
have  longer  recess  periods  than  fifteen  minutes.  When,  be- 
cause of  distance,  bad  roads,  or  other  reasons,  the  younger 
children  have  to  wait  for  the  dismissal  of  elder  brothers  and 
sisters  they  should  play  out  of  doors,  or  use  building-blocks 
on  the  floor  in  a  corner  where  they  will  not  disturb  the  other 
pupils,  or  lay  out  farms  on  the  sand  table,  or  illustrate  the 
reading  lesson  by  drawing  pictures  on  the  blackboard.  This 
time  should  be  spent  in  free,  spontaneous  play,  in  which  the 
children  may  give  expression  to  their  own  ideas. 

The  number  of  pupils  in  every  district  will  vary  with  the 
work  at  certain  seasons,  with  illness,  and  with  the  removal 
of  families.  The  daily  program  should  be  immediately  ad- 
justed accordingly. 

No  teacher  should  plan  so  many  classes  a  day  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  have  them  recite.  The  program  as 
decided  upon  should  be  carried  out.  The  recess  period 
should  occur  at  the  proper  time,  no  classes  should  be  omitted, 
and  school  should  close  promptly. 

The  hardest  work  may  be  done  during  the  morning,  and 
the  most  difficult  subjects  should  be  placed  on  the  morning 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  113 

program.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  this  for  each  grade,  but  it 
may  be  accomplished  for  the  school  as  a  whole  by  having 
the  younger  pupils,  who  can  make  little  preparation  for  their 
lessons,  recite  immediately  after  the  session  opens.  The 
older  pupils,  who  are  physically  able  to  spend  more  time  in 
the  preparation  of  their  lessons,  should  recite  the  latter  part 
of  the  first  and  the  third  sessions  of  the  day.  Those  subjects 
which  require  less  application  and  more  drill  Should  come 
at  the  close  of  the  second  and  the  fourth  sessions.  Older 
pupils  learn  to  arrange,  in  part,  their  own  study  hours.  A 
word  of  caution  is  necessary,  because  pupils  who  have  a 
long  time  in  which  to  prepare  their  lessons  often  get  into 
sluggish  and  slovenly  habits  of  study.  Teachers  are  unwit- 
tingly the  cause  of  this  when  they  assign  lessons  without 
proper  motivation  and  direction. 

The  relative  importance  of  the  subjects  of  the  course  of 
study  should  be  considered,  and  time  allotted  to  teaching 
these  subjects  should  be  according  to  their  importance.  For 
example,  more  time  should  be  spent  in  teaching  reading  than 
spelling,  and  the  upper  grades  should  spend  a  larger  percent- 
age of  their  time  on  arithmetic  than  the  primary'  grades. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  the  exact  number  of  recitations 
which  a  teacher  should  have  on  her  program.  She  may  lit- 
erally hear  thirty  classes,  but  she  cannot  possibly  conduct 
that  many  recitations.  When  a  program  has  twenty  reci- 
tations the  average  length  of  each  is  sixteen  minutes.  If  the 
number  is  increased  to  twenty-five,  the  average  length  of 
each  is  reduced  to  thirteen  minutes.  Some  subjects,  such 
as  history  and  geography  in  the  upper  grades,  take  a  much 
longer  period  than  either  thirteen  or  sixteen  minutes  if  they 
are  to  be  taught  at  all  as  they  should  be.  Some  classes 
in  spelling  can  recite  in  five  minutes.  The  need  of  longer 
periods  than  the  average  is  much  greater  than  the  need  of 
more  classes  which  may  recite  in  shorter  periods.  One  of  the 


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116     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

greatest  problems  the  rural  teacher  has,  then,  is  to  reduce 
the  number  of  classes  so  as  to  have  all  the  pupils  recite  in  all 
the  subjects  they  are  required  to  take,  and  at  the  same  time 
have  the  recitation  period  of  sufficient  length  to  teach  the 
subject  well. 

A  copy  of  a  daily  program  which  was  worked  out  in  a 
Michigan  one-room  rural  school  accompanies  this  chapter. 
There  were  twenty-six  pupils  in  eight  grades.  There  were 
twenty-five  recitations,  which  varied  in  length  from  ten  to 
twenty  minutes.  In  schools  of  fewer  pupils  the  number 
should  be  less.  This  may  be  accomplished  in  several  ways : 

First,  classes  may  be  combined.  In  the  school  for  which 
this  program  was  made,  there  were  two  pupils  in  the  sixth 
grade,  one  further  advanced  and  capable  of  doing  harder 
work  than  the  other.  The  added  incentive  of  reading  with 
the  seventh  and  the  eighth  .grade,  together  with  his  own 
ability  in  reading,  enabled  him  to  read  with  those  grades 
with  profit.  The  other  pupil  gladly  read  with  the  fifth 
grade,  who  were  having  new  and  interesting  material  within 
their  power  to  read.  Doing  away  with  the  sixth  grade  read- 
ing class  lengthened  the  time  of  each  of  the  other  classes. 
Similar  combination  of  classes,  except  arithmetic,  may  be 
made  in  most  other  cases.  It  is  seldom  profitable  for  a  pupil 
to  remain  in  a  class  by  himself.  The  enthusiasm  of  numbers 
is  often  overlooked  in  rural  schools.  Whenever  it  is  possible 
to  teach  cooperation  by  practice  it  should  be  done.  Spelling 
classes  may  be  always  combined.  The  spelling  and  phonic 
work  may  be  combined  in  the  first  three  grades. 

Second,  the  number  of  recitations  may  be  reduced  by  al- 
ternating subjects  or  different  grades  in  the  same  subject. 
Classes  in  grammar  and  physiology  in  the  same  grade  may 
recite  on  alternate  days;  or  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Fri- 
day may  be  given  to  grammar,  and  Tuesday  and  Thursday 
to  physiology.  Fifth  and  sixth  grade  geography  may  recite 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  117 

on  alternate  days  with  seventh  and  eighth  in  the  same  sub- 
ject. Instead  of  having  both  classes  recite  every  day  for  a 
fifteen  minute  period,  each  recites  for  thirty  minutes  every 
other  day. 

Lessons  in  agriculture  should  occasionally  be  substituted 
for  reading  and  grammar,  for  they  furnish  a  splendid  subject 
for  oral  discussion.  Friday  afternoon,  from  the  last  recess 
period  to  the  closing  of  school,  may  be  given  to  instruction 
of  domestic  art,  domestic  science,  and  manual  training;  ad- 
ditional help  may  be  given  as  needed  at  the  noon  intermis- 
sion. Domestic  science  may  be  taught  in  connection  with 
serving  the  hot  noon  lunch,  the  instruction  being  given  at 
the  time  suggested  above.  Instruction  in  hand  work  for  the 
primary  grade  should  be  given  at  the  arithmetic  period. 
Music  and  drawing  and  nature  study  should  be  taught 
at  the  time  of  the  morning  exercises.  Story -telling,  read- 
ing aloud,  current  events,  discussion  of  problems  of  interest 
to  all  the  school  should  also  form  a  part  of  the  morning 
exercise. 

The  teacher  should  direct  and  prepare  for  such  seat  work 
as  may  be  educational.  This  is  also  a  very  important 
part  of  the  daily  program,  as  every  successful  rural  teacher 
knows. 

As  stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  the  daily  pro- 
gram is  a  very  essential  feature  in  the  rural  schools.  It  is 
not  easy  to  work  out  a  program.  The  discussion  given  here 
may  not  be  all  used  by  any  one  teacher,  but  it  is  hoped  it 
will  prove  suggestive. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  advantage  is  it  to  pupils  in  school  if  the  teacher  arranges  a  very 
definite  program  of  classes  for  each  day's  session,  and  then  posts  this 
in  a  conspicuous  place  where  all  may  consult  it? 

2.  Is  it  an  advantage  or  a  disadvantage  to  a  child  to  place  him  in  a  class 
which  is  in  advance  of  his  ability?     Can  you  suggest  any  plan  for 


118    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

classifying  pupils  in  school  so  scientifically  that  each  will  be  given  the 
greatest  opportunity  for  study  and  advancement? 

3.  Would  it  be  fair  to  criticize  a  school  without  first  having  investigated 
its  work  personally,  thus  having  first-hand  knowledge  of  the  plans 
and  methods  followed? 

4.  Do  trustees  and  patrons  ever  or  often  ask  the  teacher  to  explain  the 
new  ways  of  doing  things  in  school,  either  personally  or  in  an  open 
forum  meeting? 

5.  In  judging  school  organization  and  classroom  instruction,  enumerate 
all  of  the  points  which  ought  to  be  considered  in  a  well-directed  plan. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  HOME  AND  THE  SCHOOL  IN  COOPERATION 

THE  home  and  the  school  must  work  in  closest  cooperation 
in  order  that  the  largest  and  best  development  be  secured 
during  the  preparatory  years  of  the  child's  life.  Home  mak- 
ing is  fundamental  in  the  prime  necessities  which  govern 
our  progress.  The  principle  which  rules  the  home  must 
eventually  be  the  governing  influence  which  rules  our  Na- 
tion. The  school  is  the  most  important  supplement  to  the 
home  because  it  assumes  the  responsibility  of  the  child's 
well-being  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  time  during  the 
formative  period  of  his  life.  It  must  share  with  the  home  all 
the  responsibilities  of  good  home  making,  and  must  assume 
complete  parental  control  and  guidance  of  all  the  child's  ac- 
tivities during  the  time  school  is  in  session.  These  two  in- 
stitutions, therefore,  which  are  largely  responsible  for  the 
shaping  of  the  child's  life  and  for  making  him  ready  for  the 
duties  of  citizenship,  should  work  together  in  closest  unison. 

In  order  that  the  transition  be  not  too  great  between  the 
parental  home  and  the  school  home  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
as  many  as  possible  of  the  comforts  of  the  one  for  the  other. 
The  environment  of  each  one  too  should  be  similar,  in  that 
pleasure  as  well  as  comfort  should  be  fundamental  in  the 
general  plan.  It  is  the  desire  of  all  parents  that  their  chil- 
dren remember  their  home  with  delight,  and  it  is  equally  de- 
sirable that  the  school  be  so  organized  that  it  will  make  last- 
ing impressions  for  good  upon  the  minds  of  all  of  its  pupils. 
The  home  is  made  beautiful  by  its  plan,  its  arrangement,  its 
furnishings,  —  all  of  which  must  be  reflected  in  the  family 
ties  which  are  most  sacred  as  a  home  influence.  The  school 


120    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

home,  then,  which  moulds  and  shapes  the  child's  life  to  the 
same  degree  must  be  arranged  and  furnished  properly,  and 
the  governing  principle  must  be  characterized  by  a  spirit 
akin  to  parental  control.  But  we  must  go  further  in  our 
plan  of  cooperation  by  inaugurating  a  closer  personal  asso- 
ciation. The  teacher  must  know  the  parents  of  the  children 
whom  she  teaches.  She  must  know  each  home  and  have 
an  understanding  of  its  personal  characteristics.  She  must 
see  the  children  in  their  home  surroundings  in  order  to  de- 
termine hew  to  supplement  the  home  training  to  the  best 
advantage  in  the  case  of  each  child  under  her  charge.  On 
the  other  hand,  all  parents  should  know  the  teacher  per- 
sonally in  order  to  place  more  confidence  in  her  as  a  director 
of  their  children.  The  children  must  be  governed  by  this 
dual  authority  existing  in  the  home  and  in  the  school,  and  a 
thorough  understanding  is  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  the 
misunderstandings  which  so  frequently  arise.  In  order  to 
know  the  teacher  well,  the  parent  must  see  her  in  the  school- 
room performing  the  daily  duties  of  the  work  under  her  su- 
pervision. This  will  require  frequent  visits,  and  can  best  be 
carried  out  by  making  a  schedule  plan  so  that  one  or  more 
mothers  visit  the  school  every  week  in  the  year.  It  should 
be  understood,  of  course,  that  the  teachers'  visits  to  the 
homes,  and  the  parents'  visits  to  the  school,  should  be  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  closer  cooperation,  and  should  never  be 
done  for  the  purpose  of  criticizing.  Good  fellowship  always 
comes  through  common  interests  and  honest  intent.  So  the 
home  and  the  school  should  both  profit  by  this  wholesome 
acquaintanceship  and  mutual  desire  to  assist  each  other. 

Among  the  qualifications  required  of  the  teacher,  none  is 
more  necessary  nor  more  in  demand  than  social  leadership. 
This  characteristic  has  various  names  —  some  call  it  initia- 
tive; some,  enthusiasm;  some,  community  or  civic  interest; 
some,  power  to  mix;  some,  good  fellowship,  or  the  power  to 


HOME  AND  SCHOOL  IN  COOPERATION         121 

touch  humanity.  And  we  say  of  such  a  teacher,  she  had  the 
ability  to  harmonize  discordant  elements  of  a  community, 
or  she  senses  the  pulse  of  her  district,  or  she  is  just  popular 
and  attractive,  a  jolly  companion,  and  everybody  likes  her. 
More  and  more  we  are  recognizing  the  fact  that  education 
is  not  altogether  a  matter  of  book  learning,  but  it  is  primarily 
the  ability  to  live  with  people,  and  that  knowledge  is  not 
an  end,  but  a  contributing  force.  Thus  it  is  required  of 
a  teacher  to  teach  this  art  —  the  ability  to  live  with  one's 
fellows. 

One  hardly  knows  how  such  a  view  of  education  evolved 
from  so  opposite  a  viewpoint.  It  has  developed  very  slowly 
and  is  a  recent  idea.  The  scholastic  age  made  knowledge 
equivalent  to  conduct,  and  this  view  led  to  retirement  from 
the  world,  as  monks  or  hermits  did,  in  order  to  secure  a 
happy  future  life  for  one's  self.  But  gradually  the  centuries 
have  evolved  a  new  educational  theory,  that  man's  soul  is 
saved  only  by  losing  all  idea  of  self  through  participation 
in  the  affairs  of  the  world.  This  idea  has  taken  root,  as  it 
were,  in  the  composite  public  mind  as  an  evolution,  till  in 
some  way  it  has  become  embodied  in  all  our  institutions,  in 
our  very  laws,  and  in  our  ways  of  thinking.  Our  churches, 
our  hospitals  and  asylums,  our  Chambers  of  Commerce,  our 
charitable  organizations,  labor  organizations,  clubs,  and  at 
last  our  schools  are  organized  with  the  idea  of  complete 
brotherhood  and  fuller  participation  in  community  affairs. 

Such  has  been  the  growth  of  the  Parent-Teacher  Move- 
ment. As  an  organization  it  started  away  back  in  1897, 
when  Mrs.  Theodore  W.  Birney  and  Mrs.  Phoebe  A.  Hearst 
called  a  meeting  of  mothers  to  discuss  Child- Welfare.  Out 
of  this  first  meeting  was  organised  the  Mothers'  Congress. 
So  rapidly  did  the  movement  grow  that  the  members  drew 
up  a  permanent  constitution,  calling  themselves  the  Na- 
tional Congress  of  Mothers.  There  have  been  eighteen 


122    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

annual  conferences  since  that  time,  held  every  other  year  at 
Washington,  D.C. 

Starting  at  first  as  a  Mothers'  Movement,  it  soon  broad- 
ened its  scope  so  that  fathers  as  well  as  mothers  might  have 
the  opportunity  of  cooperating  with  all  others  interested 
in  Child-Welfare.  The  Association  recognized  fathers  and 
mothers  as  sharing  equally  the  burdens  and  the  responsi- 
bilities of  child-rearing.  Thirty -seven  States  have  branch 
associations  of  the  Mothers'  Congress  with  their  corps  of 
able  managers.  Thousands  of  progressive  cities,  villages, 
and  rural  schools  have  branch  organizations  affiliated  with 
the  state  associations,  and  thus  indirectly  with  the  National 
Congress  of  Mothers. 

The  keynote  of  the  entire  work  is  cooperation.  The 
objects  of  the  Congress  are  many  in  detail,  but  the  one  gen- 
eral purpose  is  embodied  in  the  phrase  Child- Welfare.  De- 
tailed aims  and  purposes  are  as  follows : 

To  raise  the  standards  of  home  life;  to  develop  wiser,  better 
trained  parenthood. 

To  give  young  people,  ignorant  of  the  proper  care  and  training  of 
children,  opportunities  to  learn  this,  that  they  may  better  perform 
the  duties  of  parenthood. 

To  bring  into  closer  relations  the  home  and  school,  that  parent  and 
teacher  may  cooperate  intelligently  in  the  education  of  the  child. 

To  surround  the  childhood  of  the  whole  world  with  that  loving 
wise  care  in  the  impressionable  years  of  life,  which  will  develop 
good  citizens,  instead  of  law-breakers  and  criminals. 

To  carry  the  mother-love  and  mother-thought  into  all  that  con- 
cerns or  touches  childhood  in  Home,  School,  Church,  or  State. 

To  interest  men  and  women  to  cooperate  in  the  work  for  purer, 
truer  homes,  in  the  belief  that  to  accomplish  the  best  results,  men 
and  women  must  work  together. 

To  secure  such  legislation  as  will  insure  that  children  of  tender 
years  may  not  be  tried  in  ordinary  courts,  but  that  each  town  shall 
establish  juvenile  courts  and  special  officers,  whose  business  it  shall 
be  to  look  out  for  that  care  which  will  rescue  the  child  from  evil 
ways  instead  of  confirming  him  in  them. 


HOME  AND  SCHOOL  IN  COOPERATION         123 

To  rouse  the  whole  community  to  a  sense  of  its  duty  and  respon- 
sibility to  the  blameless,  dependent,  and  neglected  children,  be- 
cause there  is  no  philanthropy  which  will  so  speedily  reduce  our 
taxes,  reduce  our  prison  expenses,  reduce  the  expense  of  institu- 
tions for  correction  and  reform. 

The  work  of  the  Congress  is  civic  work  in  its  broadest  and  highest 
sense,  and  every  man  or  woman  who  is  interested  in  the  aims  of 
the  Congress  is  cordially  invited  to  become  a  member  and  aid  in 
the  organized  effort  for  a  higher,  nobler  national  life  which  can  be 
attained  only  through  the  individual  homes. 

A  magazine  is  published  by  the  National  Congress  which 
outlines  the  state  and  national  child-welfare  views,  suggests 
ways  of  organizing  local  associations,  plans  programs,  and 
in  many  helpful  ways  deals  with  the  problems  of  parenthood 
and  the  school. 

Not  only  is  the  United  States  thus  organized,  but  many 
foreign  countries  are  vitally  interested.  The  last  Interna- 
tional Congress  of  Mothers  had  representatives  from  Great 
Britain,  China,  Japan,  Persia,  Cuba,  Bulgaria,  and  other 
nations.  Great  Britain  is  very  progressive  in  this  line.  We 
find,  too,  that  every  progressive  community  throughout  our 
land  has  some  society  or  club  definitely  devoted  to  commu- 
nity needs,  and  whatever  its  name  may  be,  whether  social 
settlement,  civic  center,  or  community  meeting,  all  are 
striving  for  the  same  ends.  The  great  value  in  affiliation 
with  a  National  Organization  is  in  an  extended  breadth  of 
view  and  the  united  effort  of  thousands  of  people  for  a  com- 
mon good  to  childhood.  That  community  which  is  content 
to  have  its  school  and  home  life  distinct,  with  no  coopera- 
tion between  parents  and  teachers,  cannot  take  high  rank 
in  its  efforts  for  social  progress. 

The  Parent-Teacher  Association  is  primarily  the  depart- 
ment in  which  teachers  may  work  to  best  advantage.  This 
organization  may  be  brought  about  by  a  wide-awake  teacher 
or  by  the  citizens  of  a  community.  It  comes  into  being  only 


124     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

when  the  needs  of  a  locality  demand  it.  Conditions  are  not 
right.  There  are  factions  in  the  district,  perhaps,  or  a  lack 
of  harmony  between  teacher,  parents,  and  pupils;  or  there  is 
a  need  of  improvement  in  buildings,  or  school  grounds,  or 
home  conditions  and  ideals;  in  sanitation,  ventilation,  heat- 
ing plant;  the  teacher's  housing;  or,  as  too  frequently  occurs, 
in  the  moral  conditions  of  the  young  people.  No  teacher  or 
parent  alone  can  right  these  conditions.  It  is  only  through 
cooperation  of  the  teacher  and  the  parents  —  all  of  them 
if  it  can  be  brought  about  —  that  wrong  conditions  may  be 
righted.  Often  a  strong  teacher  sees  the  need  first.  Some- 
times her  Board  is  eager  to  make  all  the  necessary  improve- 
ments; sometimes,  however,  economy  plays  too  large  a  part 
in  hampering  the  welfare  of  the  children  or  the  best  efforts 
of  the  teacher.  Perhaps  the  teacher  is  right;  perhaps  the 
Board  and  community  are  right;  but,  at  any  rate,  no  prog- 
ress ever  came  from  division  of  sentiment.  To  talk  the 
matter  over,  giving  arguments  for  and  against,  in  a  sensible, 
reasonable  way,  is  the  only  way  to  bring  about  harmony 
of  purpose.  A  monthly  meeting  in  the  schoolhouse  —  the 
common  possession  of  all  the  people  —  brings  all  together 
for  the  best  interests  of  the  children.  Here  there  is  no 
rich  nor  poor,  no  snob,  no  intellectual  class,  no  illiterate; 
for  every  father  and  mother  is  experimenting  on  human 
life,  as  is  the  teacher;  and  sometimes,  nay,  often,  it  is  the 
son  of  the  so-called  common  people,  who  has  had  the  best 
training  for  life,  that  becomes  the  future  leader  of  a  new 
generation.  There  is  no  leveler  so  great  as  that  of  educa- 
tion, and  the  richest  and  wisest  father  sometimes  stands 
abashed  before  his  poor  and  illiterate  neighbor  whose  son  has 
become  a  blessing.  Where  there  is  no  local  paper  —  as  in 
rural  districts  —  public  opinion  is  difficult  to  secure  without 
some  medium  of  exchange.  These  monthly  meetings  con- 
stitute a  public  forum,  and  may  become  the  educator  of  all 


HOME  AND  SCHOOL  IN  COOPERATION         125 

the  people  in  the  same  way  that  the  Grange  Meetings  have 
educated  the  farmer. 

The  National  Congress  recommends  a  simple  method  of 
organizing  such  an  association  of  parents  and  teachers.  The 
simpler  the  organization  the  better,  for  it  does  not  meet  to 
study  parliamentary  law,  but  the  child;  and  it  will  make  less 
difference  to  him  whether  a  motion  is  out  of  order  than  the 
fact  that  his  seat  is  so  adjusted  that  his  body  will  have  a  fair 
chance  to  develop.  So,  too,  the  conditions  on  the  playground, 
medical  inspection,  how  to  prevent  sore  throats  and  colds, 
suitable  and  nourishing  foods  for  school  lunches,  high  stand- 
ards of  morals  among  the  children,  'and  the  moral  standards 
of  the  community  are  all  topics  of  great  significance  which 
a  Parent-Teacher  Meeting  may  profitably  discuss. 

Additional  topics,  suggestive  of  what  a  Parent-Teacher 
Meeting  may  profitably  discuss,  are : 

1.  School  curriculum 

2.  School  and  home  discipline 

3.  Home  credits 

4.  School  libraries  and  home  reading 

5.  Equipment  for  the  school,  such  as  paper  towels,  common 
drinking  cup,  warm  lunch  apparatus,  pictures,  heating  plant, 
school  desks,  lighting  facilities,  etc. 

6.  Medical,  dental,  and  eye  inspection 

7.  Study  of  sex  hygiene 

8.  Supervision  of  playgrounds  and  play  apparatus 

9.  Planting  of  shrubbery,  trees,  etc.,  on  school  grounds 

10.  School  gardens  or  farms 

11.  Manual  training  and  domestic  science 

12.  School  contests 

13.  School  dress 

14.  Amusements  for  young  people  and  their  supervision 

15.  School  and  home  clubs 

1C.  Causes  of  colds,  sore  throats,  weak  eyes,  etc. 

17.  Earning  capacity  of  the  child 

18.  The  value  of  play 

19.  Good  music 


126    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

Another  phase  of  school  and  home  cooperation  can  be 
carried  out  by  making  the  schoolhouse  a  center  for  the 
social  and  intellectual  activities  of  the  community  about  it. 
As  the  one  rural  institution  which  is  supported  by  all  and 
equally  open  to  all,  and  representing  no  church,  lodge,  polit- 
ical party,  organization,  or  social  group,  it  stands  for  the 
common  welfare  of  all,  and  about  it  as  a  center  all  should 
unite.  Its  labors  are  directed  only  toward  the  education 
and  improvement  of  the  children  of  all  of  the  people,  and 
this  is  a  great  unifying  idea.  To  this  end  the  school  trustees 
and  teacher  should  encourage  the  use  of  the  school  building 
as  a  meeting  place  for  all  forms  of  community  organizations, 
and  make  of  the  schoolhouse  a  center  for  the  advancement 
of  the  community  welfare.  Public  meetings,  evening  lec- 
tures, meetings  of  the  Grange,  spelling  matches,  entertain- 
ments, exhibits,  plays,  musical  performances,  —  these  are 
some  of  the  forms  of  community  activity  which  the  trustees 
of  the  school  should  permit  to  be  held  in  the  building,  so 
that  it  may  become  what  it  ought  to  be,  —  the  great  center 
for  the  social  and  intellectual  life  of  the  community  whose 
children  attend  it. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  five  of  the  best  reasons  you  can  give  for  the  home  and  the 
school  working  in  the  closest  cooperation? 

2.  What  suggestions  have  you  for  making  the  transition  less  marked,  for 
the  child  six  years  of  age,  when  he  goes  from  his  home  to  the  school 
for  the  first  time? 

3.  What  advantage  is  there  in  personal  visitation  exchanged  between  the 
home  and  the  school? 

4.  What  additional  points  can  you  add  to  the  detailed  aims  and  purposes 
set  forth  in  the  Child- Welfare  movement,  having  to  do  with  the  creat- 
ing of  better  opportunities  for  children? 

5.  What  plan  do  you  suggest  for  Americanizing  the  foreign  immigrant 
who  comes  to  our  country  seeking  permanent  citizenship? 


CHAPTER  XIV 

RURAL  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 

DURING  recent  years  much  study  has  been  given  to  country- 
life  problems,  and  in  connection  with  this  the  rural  school 
has  received  much  comment.  Public  attention  thus  focused 
upon  a  particular  unit  of  our  school  system  has  brought  to 
light  many  important  issues  which  will  serve  to  improve  con- 
ditions now  out  of  harmony.  These  rural  centers  which  at 
one  time  formed  the  basis  of  the  public-school  system  seem 
to  have  been  somewhat  neglected  during  recent  years,  while 
the  village  and  city  systems  have  been  evolving  out  of  the 
midst  of  new  conditions  and  new  influences.  Indeed  many 
have  come  to  think  of  education  as  centered  in  our  urban 
communities,  and  feel  that  only  in  such  communities  can  the 
best  school  work  be  provided.  As  cities  have  grown  and 
prospered  they  have  provided  for  elaborate  systems  of  edu- 
cation, for  good  buildings,  for  splendid  equipment,  and  above 
all  they  have  provided  for  an  adequate  system  of  supervision. 
By  consulting  former  chapters  it  may  be  seen  that  the  ad- 
ministration of  our  entire  school  system  is  in  good  hands; 
that  the  administration  officers  are  faithful  and  considerate 
in  their  part  of  the  work.  It  must  be  admitted,  however, 
that  the  supervision  of  the  rural  schools  has  been  neglected 
to  a  large  degree.  This  has  not  been  done  intentionally,  but 
rather  because  of  conditions  which  seemed  to  work  against 
its  proper  promotion.  It  is  easy  to  supervise  a  city  unit  be- 
cause of  its  compactness,  but  to  secure  adequate  supervision 
for  the  country  schools,  which  are  more  or  less  isolated,  has 
proved  to  be  a  more  difficult  problem. 

Some  in  discussing  the  problem  of  supervision  have  even 


128     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

advocated  the  idea  that  the  rural  schools  need  no  supervi- 
sion. Their  statements  were  to  the  effect  that  the  teacher 
employed  ought  to  be  able  to  handle  her  work  properly  with- 
out assistance  and  without  suggestion.  Further  statements 
have  been  made  that  it  is  simply  a  waste  of  money  to  under- 
take to  organize  country  places  by  organizing  educational 
units  of  the  proper  size. 

Arguments  of  such  nature,  however,  seem  not  to  be  well 
founded  when  we  consider  the  fact  that  in  the  cities  about 
one  tenth  of  the  school  revenue  is  paid  for  supervision  pur- 
poses. We  must  admit  at  once  that  the  city  system  has 
prospered  under  its  well-organized  plan.  All  agree  that  su- 
pervision is  one  of  its  most  important  elements,  and  the  law 
will  not  permit  a  city  system  to  be  organized  without  making 
proper  provision  for  this  most  important  part  of  its  direction. 
Even  though  teachers  be  employed  who  possess  special  train- 
ing and  who  have  proved  their  adaptability  through  years  of 
experience,  special  supervisors  are  provided  to  insure  that 
the  best  instruction  be  given  and  that  the  children  be  di- 
rected in  using  their  time  to  the  best  possible  advantage. 

As  great  progress  has  been  made  under  a  carefully  super- 
vised system  in  the  city,  it  would  be  quite  logical  to  suppose 
that  our  rural  systems  could  be  improved  by  the  same  watch- 
ful direction.  If  money  is  provided  through  public  revenue 
for  the  better  direction  of  city  schools,  there  ought  to  be  a 
means  whereby  the  financial  help  can  be  given  to  the  rural 
communities.  Surely  the  child  life  on  the  farm  is  no  less  im- 
portant in  its  development  than  that  of  the  city  cousin. 
Surely  the  citizenship  of  our  country  includes  all  the  chil- 
dren, wherever  they  may  live,  and  our  educational  heritage 
must  extend  even  into  the  most  remote  places.  And  to 
make  possible  a  great  citizenship  we  must  offer  to  all  child 
life  the  very  best  opportunities  for  mental,  physical,  and 
moral  growth  in  our  public  schools. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  129 

It  has  been  found  through  experience  that  the  school  dis- 
trict is  too  small  a  unit  to  provide  good  supervision,  and  also 
that  this  can  be  administered  best  in  units  not  too  large  in 
size.  Supervision  of  instruction  by  the  School  Board  is  no 
longer  possible,  as  its  members  cannot  be  expected  to  pos- 
sess the  pedagogical  knowledge  necessary.  Any  well-trained 
teacher  must  necessarily  know  more  about  the  details  of 
instruction  than  any  School  Trustee  can  be  expected  to  know. 
\Yhat  is  needed  is  a  traveling  supervisor  who  can  give  per- 
sonal attention  to  classroom  organization  and  the  work  of 
instruction,  and  by  personal  visitation  inspect  the  class- 
room work  of  a  number  of  teachers.  The  teacher  must  have 
the  cooperation  and  encouragement  of  the  supervisor,  for 
many  difficult  problems  can  be  solved  better  through  the 
counsel  of  both  acting  together.  The  children,  too,  will  feel 
a  greater  interest  in  their  work  if  they  know  it  is  being  in- 
spected regularly  by  a  competent  supervisor  representing 
some  larger  authority  than  the  district,  and  that  through 
this  means  a  standardizing  influence  is  being  applied  as  a 
measure  to  all  work  being  accomplished.  Even  the  patrons 
will  be  able  to  create  a  greater  unity  in  the  schoolroom  work, 
and  will  feel  the  strength  of  a  well-organized  plan  working  in 
and  through  all  of  the  functions  connected  with  the  school. 
As  this  directing  influence  has  been  found  very  essential  to 
the  promotion  of  all  industrial  organizations,  it  will  just  as 
surely  prove  valuable  in  securing  the  very  best  things  in  our 
educational  work.  It  will  require  some  added  expense,  to  be 
sure,  but  the  small  outlay  required  will  be  very  little  com- 
pared with  the  added  efficiency  which  it  will  give.  Per- 
sonally I  believe  that  the  rural  school  as  now  organized  can 
be  doubled  in  ils  effectiveness  in  serving  the  community  and 
in  its  academic  efficiency  through  this  means  of  better  su- 
pervision, and  I  believe  that  the  one  great  need  in  our 
educational  advancement  is  to  give  this  part  of  our  edu- 


130    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

cational  system  the  necessary  assistance  in  this  particular 
line. 

The  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  or  the  County 
School  Commissioner,  who  has  had  charge  of  this  work  in  the 
different  States,  has  been  very  earnest  in  considering  the  gen- 
eral welfare  of  our  rural  schools,  but  it  is  entirely  impossible 
for  this  officer,  who  has  numerous  clerical  and  administra- 
tive duties,  also  to  supervise  a  large  number  of  widely  scat- 
tered schools.  In  most  instances  the  counties  are  so  large 
that  it  is  impossible  for  the  county  officer,  with  his  other 
duties  to  attend  to,  to  make  more  than  one  trip  during  the 
year  to  each  school  under  his  direction.  Under  such  circum- 
stances the  visitation  can  only  be  a  very  meager  inspection 
of  the  school,  which  can  in  no  way  be  considered  supervision 
for  this  all-important  work.  What  is  needed  is  frequent 
professional  supervision  of  a  new  kind. 

Things  which  seem  to  be  most  worth  while  in  education 
have  behind  them  a  great  living  personality,  and  no  institu- 
tion is  able  to  prosper  without  human  sympathy  and  united 
personal  interest.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  personal 
interest  is  limited,  and  can  come  in  contact,  in  the  strongest 
way,  only  with  conditions  near  at  hand.  Impressions  that 
we  receive  each  day  concerning  things  nearest  and  dearest 
to  us  become  of  greatest  personal  interest.  Lessons  in  the 
schoolroom  are  made  personal  through  the  teacher's  devo- 
tion to  her  work,  and  can  be  made  doubly  interesting  by 
reinforcing  this  personal  interest  through  the  supervisor  who 
watches  the  development  from  all  of  the  different  angles 
connected  with  the  pupil's  welfare. 

A  community,  though  it  may  be  intensely  interested  in 
national  affairs,  should  be  interested  most  in  its  own  local 
problems  and  local  welfare.  It  ought  to  know  its  own  needs 
better  than  those  who  view  it  from  a  distance.  It  surely 
has  problems  to  be  solved  that  can  not  be  seen  by  those  who 


RURAL  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  131 

are  looking  on  from  afar.  It  must  then  develop  a  local  pride 
and  a  local  interest  in  its  school  affairs  in  order  to  make 
possible  the  best  things  for  its  children. 

In  order  to  provide  adequate  supervision,  one  of  two  plans 
should  be  followed.  One  plan  is  to  provide  special  supervi- 
sors, as  of  primary  work,  music,  agriculture,  etc.,  and  have 
these  visit  and  direct  their  work  in  all  the  schools  of  the 
county.  The  other  is  to  divide  each  county  into  two  or  more 
supervisory  units,  each  representing  from  twelve  to  twenty- 
five  districts,  according  to  conditions  and  circumstances. 
The  divisions  should  be  made  in  such  a  manner  as  to  offer  the 
very  best  road  facilities  and  topographical  conditions  for 
getting  over  the  territory  most  easily.  Under  the  latter 
plan,  the  supervisor  acts  much  as  a  principal  of  an  elemen- 
tary school  in  a  city.  He  should  be  required  to  live  in  the 
supervised  territory,  and  should  become  a  real  part  of  the 
community  life  represented.  He  should  be  provided  with 
the  very  best  means  of  transportation  in  order  to  make  pos- 
sible quick  and  effective  service.  He  should  be  provided 
with  telephone  service,  with  lines  extending  to  each  one  of 
the  separate  units  or  school  districts.  He  should  meet  the 
people  of  each  neighborhood  personally  and  find  out  their 
needs,  and  should  arrange  to  give  every  assistance  in  carry- 
ing into  effect  their  plans  for  improvement.  He  should  be  a 
ready  counselor  under  all  circumstances,  should  be  broad  in 
his  ideals,  careful  in  his  decisions,  yet  firm  in  doing  his  duty. 

With  our  better  roads  and  with  our  better  transportation 
facilities  a  live  supervisor  can  adequately  supervise  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  schools,  and  be  able  to  give  the  needed  as- 
sistance to  the  teachers  and  the  communities  in  raising  the 
standards  of  their  work.  Local  organizations  ought  to  be 
formed,  and  a  general  community  interest  aroused  in  all  the 
work  to  be  undertaken.  Special  entertainments  should  be 
provided  for  the  different  sections  of  the  supervisory  unit, 


132    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

and  a  greater  interest  aroused  for  social  improvement.  Each 
school  district  should  be  stimulated  by  the  supervisor  to 
greater  activity,  and  be  given  a  better  understanding  of  its 
local  possibilities. 

I  hope  I  may  be  pardoned  for  saying  again  that  just  this 
stimulated  interest  has  built  up  a  wonderful  school  system 
in  the  city,  and  it  will  likewise  materially  increase  the  effi- 
ciency of  our  rural  communities.  I  am  inclined  to  predict 
that,  with  the  renewed  interest  in  farming  and  with  the 
progressive  farmer  of  to-day,  the  interurban  localities  are 
no  longer  to  be  deprived  of  the  best  things  in  education. 
When  a  better  understanding  of  the  problem  is  reached  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  needs  is  known,  rural  supervision  will 
be  immediately  inaugurated  throughout  the  country. 

The  Grange,  as  well  as  other  farmers'  organizations,  are 
investigating  the  merits  and  the  needs  of  a  supervisory  plan, 
and  should  it  receive  their  indorsement  and  their  support  it 
will  then  surely  take  shape  through  legislative  enactment. 
It  is  a  question  in  education  worthy  of  most  serious  consider- 
ation, because  it  will  materially  advance  our  educational 
growth  when  the  entire  system  measures  up  to  its  highest 
point  of  efficiency.  We  can  claim  only  partial  success  for 
our  work  until  this  neglected  portion  is  given  just  consid- 
eration in  the  way  of  adequate  supervision. 

Great  improvement  has  been  made  in  our  school  buildings, 
even  in  the  most  remote  places.  Heat,  light,  ventilation, 
and  sanitation  have  been  carefully  considered  in  connection 
with  each  new  building  erected.  Our  rural  schools  are  bet- 
ter supplied  with  furniture  than  ever  before.  More  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  beautifying  of  school  buildings 
and  school  grounds,  all  of  which  have  resulted  in  a  great 
change  for  the  better.  The  next  important  step  forward  is 
to  improve  the  instruction  provided  by  inaugurating  an 
adequate  system  of  rural  school  supervision. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  133 

If  we  plan  anew  the  direction  of  all  of  our  rural  schools, 
and  place  specially  trained  supervisors  over  units  of  proper 
size,  a  great  stimulus  will  be  given  to  do  better  work.  The 
little  brown  schoolhouse  by  the  roadside  will  serve  a  greater 
purpose  in  education  than  it  has  done  before,  and  boys  and 
girls  who  grow  up  on  the  farm  will  come  into  possession  of 
thair  own  just  portion  of  the  educational  heritage  which  has 
been  so  wisely  planned  and  so  carefully  fostered  through  the 
years. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  \Vhat  business  enterprises  do  you  know  that  arc  conducted  on  a  large 
scale  but  which  arc  not  provided  with  adequate  supervision? 

2.  Ho-.v  arc  Ian;:'  husincs?  concerns  stimulated  to  greater  activity,  and 
encouraged  to  undertake  problems  of  a  difficult  character? 

.'».  Can  a  farmer  succeed  in  cultivating  a  very  large  tract  of  land,  where  a 
lari'e  c.riilal  investment  is  necessary,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  each 
of  his  liircil  men  to  work  according  to  his  own  choosing  and  without 
supervision  or  direction? 

4.  If  do;;'  supervision  is  desired  in  the  country  schools,  about  what  is 
the  maximum  size  of  the  unit  of  territory,  in  your  county,  that  can  be 
direc'.ed  to  advantage  by  one  supervisor? 

5.  Point  out  the  advantages  of  providing  for  county-unit  supervision, 
where  c:\ch  rural  school  would  be  under  traveling  supervisors  of  pri- 
mary work,  agriculture,  music,  etc. 

C.  What  plan  can  you  suggest  for  the  improvement  of  rural  school 
organization  as  il:  now  exists? 

7.  If  we  arc  dissatisfied  with  conditions  as  they  exist,  is  it  better  to 
find  fault  and  criticize,  or  is  it  better  to  study  carefully  and  point 
out  in  a  constructive  manner  the  way  to  betterment? 


INDIVIDUAL  teaching  had  its  beginning  at  the  mother's  knee. 
This  home  instruction  was  afterward  supplemented  by  the 
church  pastor.  Private  tutors  were  sometimes  employed, 
but  teaching  of  this  character  was  limited  to  the  children  of 
those  having  sufficient  means.  The  next  step  was  a  sub- 
scription school.  This  was  a  little  more  advanced  in  char- 
acter, and  provided  a  way  for  a  considerable  number  of 
children  to  have  some  schooling  at  a  small  expense.  The 
general  plan  followed,  however,  was  without  organization, 
and  consequently  was  lacking  in  the  very  principle  necessary 
for  real  success.  But  from  these  small  beginnings  it  was 
easy  to  foresee  the  necessity  for  a  universal  plan,  so  that  all 
children  might  receive  the  benefit  of  at  least  an  elementary 
schooling. 

The  public  school,  therefore,  is  the  outgrowth  of  universal 
needs  which  was  conceived  by  our  forefathers  in  connection 
with  "government  by  the  people."  At  first  the  groups  of 
children  who  attended  school  were  small  because  the  plan 
included  only  children  within  a  restricted  age  limit,  — 
ranging  from  eight  to  twelve  years  old.  It  was  thought  that 
children  younger  than  eight  should  be  at  home  under  their 
mother's  direction,  and  that  children  over  twelve  ought  to 
be  at  home  helping  with  the  work  which  was  necessary  for 
the  family  to  do  in  order  to  earn  a  living.  There  was  no  call 
for  an  elaborate  plant  nor  for  expensive  furniture,  for  a  sim- 
ple arrangement  served  the  need  to  the  very  best  advantage 
at  that  time.  A  small  building  was  erected  in  each  neighbor- 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS           135 

hood,  within  walking  distance  of  all  the  homes  composing 
the  single  district.  School  was  kept  for  only  a  short  period 
of  time  during  the  year,  and  at  a  time  when  the  children  were 
freest  from  necessary  responsibilities  at  home. 

The  worth  of  this  elementary  training  was  so  universally 
appreciated  that  from  it  has  grown  our  elaborate  well-organ- 
ized school  system.  The  founders  of  public-school  education 
probably  never  realized  that  they  were  laying  the  foundation 
for  one  of  the  greatest  plans  for  promoting  national  intelli- 
gence and  stimulating  national  progress  that  has  ever  been 
realized  by  the  civilized  world.  Truly,  they  were  "building 
better  than  they  knew." 

Our  schoolroom  education  to-day  includes  many  things 
that  were  not  thought  of  at  first.  Even  elementary  educa- 
tion is  several  fold  more  important  than  it  was  conceived  to 
be  in  the  first  plan.  One  year  after  another  was  added  to 
the  requirement,  and  step  by  step  this  steady  advancement 
went  forward,  making  provisions  for  the  academy,  the  high 
school,  the  college,  the  university.  And  the  wonder  of  it  all 
is  that  all  these  institutions  are  included  in  our  free  public- 
school  system.  Standards  of  teaching  as  well  as  standards 
of  equipment  have  constantly  advanced,  and  we  find  to-day 
the  people  of  the  whole  country  contributing  willingly  to 
the  necessary  revenue  required  to  carry  forward  the  plan. 
While  conservative  expenditures  were  urged  at  first,  now  we 
spend  thousands  unhesitatingly,  knowing  full  well  that  our 
money  properly  spent  in  this  way  will  assist  in  making  a 
great  nation  of  united  peoples.  Many  parents,  too,  believe 
that  putting  their  money  into  the  very  blood  and  tissue  of 
their  own  children  will  in  the  end  prove  to  be  a  greater  treas- 
ure than  money  stored  up  or  invested  in  the  ordinary  things 
of  life.  At  any  rate  the  public-school  system  has  come  to  be 
universally  accepted  as  an  institution  worthy  of  the  best 
consideration,  and  the  support  given  it  proves  its  value  more 


136     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

conclusively  than  any  number  of  words  or  phrases  about  it 
could  possibly  do. 

The  prime  question  now  is,  how  shall  we  make  this  public 
institution  serve  to  the  best  advantage.  When  we  speak  of 
this  service  we  mean  to  include  the  needs  of  "all  the  children 
of  all  the  people."  As  the  early  plan  has  grown  and  devel- 
oped into  something  better  and  something  greater  than  was 
at  first  anticipated,  so  also  must  we  continue  to  change  our 
plans  as  the  years  pass  by,  and  as  newer  and  better  things 
arise  to  take  the  place  of  those  which  are  obsolete.  We 
should  never  change  a  course  for  the  sake  of  having  some- 
thing different,  but  each  change  should  be  so  thoroughly 
considered  that  when  it  is  established  it  will  prove  to  be  a 
real  improvement.  Any  neighborhood  studying  a  question 
with  an  honest  purpose  in  mind  will  reap  great  benefits  from 
its  deliberations,  even  though  the  proposition  is  finally  re- 
jected. Any  neighborhood  that  is  closed  to  the  study  of 
new  things  must  needs  be  unprogressive  and  is  likely  to  fall 
into  habits  of  retrogression.  How  necessary,  therefore,  is  it 
that  we  approach  new  propositions  with  open  minds  and 
with  a  sincere  determination  to  make  an  honest  analysis 
before  rendering  a  decision.  Such  a  principle  has  actuated 
every  line  of  work,  every  improvement,  every  forward  step, 
every  better  plan  that  the  world  has  ever  made. 

Since  the  public  schools  in  some  States  have  accomplished 
more  than  in  others,  since  greater  results  have  been  shown  in 
some  communities  than  in  others,  it  is  of  prime  importance 
that  we  study  these  conditions  thoroughly  and  determine 
what  there  is  lacking  in  the  one  that  is  possessed  by  the 
other.'  We  find  at  once  in  such  a  study  that  there  are  some 
specific  principles  underlying  all  growth  in  our  schools,  but 
that  the  means  in  one  is  often  quite  different  from  that  used 
in  the  others.  One  of  the  first  and  most  important  facts 
that  we  come  in  contact  with  in  our  study  is  that  the  well- 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCPIOOLS  137 

organized  and  well-supervised  system  of  schools  has  accom- 
plished more  in  the  same  length  of  time  than  one  less  care- 
fully directed.  In  the  larger  centers,  therefore,  we  find 
better  opportunities  for  this  wholesome  organization.  The 
one-room  school  of  the  country,  which  formed  the  very  corner 
stone  of  our  early  plan,  is  now  universally  conceded  to  be  the 
very  hardest  school  to  manage,  to  supervise,  and  to  improve. 
This  is  not  because  it  cannot  be  made  better,  but  rather  be- 
cause it  lacks  that  type  of  supervision  that  gives  close  atten- 
tion to  a  study  of  its  needs.  The  people  of  the  country  are 
not  unprogressive,  but.  the  fact  that  they  are  scattered  about 
makes  it  more  difficult  for  them  to  get  together  for  individual 
study  of  propositions  which  affect  their  own  welfare.  They 
have  often  closed  their  eyes  to  progressive  measures  simply 
because  it  seemed  the  easiest  way  to  settle  the  matter.  Time 
is  always  a  necessary  element  in  accomplishing  anything 
worth  while,  and  this  is  often  given  by  country  folk  in  such 
full  measure  to  other  things  that  there  is  none  left  for  prop- 
ositions which  seem  to  them  unnecessary.  Because  of  this 
attitude  there  are  many  communities  that  have  not  im- 
proved their  opportunities  to  make  of  the  public  school 
the  largest  possible  factor  in  education.  They  have  paid 
dearly  for  all  that  they  have  received,  and  in  some  instances 
have  been  willing  to  accept  educational  services  for  their 
children  which  are  entirely  below  standard.  In  striking 
contrast  to  this  the  ever-growing  tendency  is  clearly  appar- 
ent in  communities  whero  the  school  moves  ever  forward  in 
unison  wdth  the  progressive  improvements  noted  every- 
where on  the  farm. 

There  is  no  single  principle  which  can  be  set  forth  as  a 
means  of  curing  all  of  our  educational  difficulties.  Neither 
is  there  any  single  plan  of  improvement  that  will  be  found 
equally  adaptable  to  all  neighborhoods.  So  in  presenting 
consolidation  as  a  means  of  rural  school  betterment,  it  is  not 


138     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

urged  as  a  proposition  to  be  universally  accepted.  It  has 
many  advantages,  however,  and  will  be  found  adaptable  to 
many  communities  that  are  now  handicapped  by  the  limits 
of  the  small  school.  I  say  "limits  of  the  small  school,"  be- 
cause the  single  teacher  is  limited  in  her  schoolroom  to  the 
amount  which  one  individual  can  do  and  to  the  small  num- 
ber of  different  educational  problems  which  one  individual 
can  solve.  No  teacher  can  do  everything  equally  well;  so 
it  is  evident  that  an  association  of  teachers  in  a  single  school 
building  can  offer  a  greater  specialization  of  instruction  and 
variety  of  work,  and  under  better  conditions,  than  any  one 
teacher  would  be  able  to  offer.  Under  good  organization 
each  teacher  is  placed  where  she  can  accomplish  the  greatest 
amount  of  good  in  the  allotted  time,  and  each  pupil  is  placed 
where  his  adaptation  will  insure  the  greatest  accomplish- 
ment for  the  effort  expended.  Cooperation  then  in  both 
work  and  effort  can  be  realized  in  larger  measure  in  a  system 
of  schools  than  in  a  single  room  where  many  grades  of  work 
are  represented. 

In  the  one-room  school  all  recitations  must  necessarily  be 
short.  This  was  well  shown  in  the  daily  school  program 
given  in  Chapter  XII.  There  are  so  many  classes  and  so 
many  types  of  work  during  a  single  day  that  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  do  all  things  well  and  slight  nothing,  even  though  the 
teacher  in  charge  be  earnest,  faithful,  and  painstaking.  Be- 
cause of  this  serious  handicap,  it  is  wise  to  change  such  con- 
ditions whenever  it  can  be  done.  There  are  many  places 
where  the  whole  difficulty  lies  in  the  minds  of  the  people 
rather  than  in  the  impracticability  of  the  plan.  An  honest 
study  of  the  working  plan,  and  the  results  obtained  in  the 
many  consolidated  schools  now  organized  in  our  most  pro- 
gressive States,  will  reveal  many  interesting  facts,  and  hence 
this  is  urged  as  worthy  of  first  consideration  by  all  small 
districts.  Compiled  data  and  printed  matter  may  be  had 


139 

from  State  and  County  School  Superintendents.  Abun- 
dance of  material  is  available,  and  much  of  it  of  a  very 
convincing  type. 

Whenever  the  plan  of  consolidating  a  number  of  small 
schools  to  form  a  larger  union  school  is  brought  up  for  con- 
sideration, there  should  be  a  very  careful  survey  made  of 
the  physical  conditions  of  the  territory.  Climatic  condi- 
tions must  be  thought  of,  because  this  is  an  inevitable  situa- 
tion which  cannot  well  be  changed.  The  condition  of  roads 
and  means  of  transportation  during  the  school  year  is  an 
important  item,  because  pupils  can  walk  to  school  only 
within  limited  distances,  and  if  the  territory  is  to  be  ex- 
tended beyond  this  limit  a  means  must  be  provided  for 
transporting  the  pupils.  The  time  arrangement  which  at 
once  enters  into  the  scheme  must  not  be  overlooked.  Chil- 
dren who  must  come  the  farthest  cannot  be  expected  to 
leave  home  too  early  in  the  morning,  nor  to  arrive  at  home 
too  late  in  the  afternoon.  The  kind  of  vehicle  to  be  used 
and  the  reliability  of  the  driver  must  also  come  in  for  con- 
sideration, because  these  things  are  vital  in  making  the  plan 
a  worthy  one.  The  cost  of  maintaining  a  school  under  con- 
solidation is  not  likely  to  be  less  expensive,  though  there  is 
every  evidence  that  greater  returns  may  be  had  for  money 
expended  in  this  way  than  is  possible  under  the  old  ungraded 
system.  Better  things  are  not  usually  purchased  with  less 
money.  All  of  these  difficulties,  though,  are  easily  handled 
if  guided  by  expert  advice. 

Though  almost  every  State  in  the  Union  has  worked  out 
some  plan  by  which  its  rural  schools  may  be  consolidated, 
and  though  it  is  considered  a  distinct  forward  movement  for 
the  betterment  of  rural  and  village  education,  it  has  been  but 
very  slightly  appreciated  by  the  people  whom  it  most  affects. 
This  can  be  accounted  for  only  by  the  fact  that  the  plan 
has  not  been  carefully  studied  by  rural  and  village  people, 


140     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

and  that  in  many  instances  it  probably  has  been  viewed 
with  prejudice.  We  must  look  deeper  than  tradition  in  jus- 
tifying that  which  is  old;  we  must  be  willing  to  be  convinced 
when  the  preponderance  of  evidence  is  against  us,  no  mattei' 
what  our  personal  likes  or  dislikes  may  be.  If  conditions  are 
not  right  when  a  careful  study  is  made  of  the  neighborhood 
conditions,  it  is  best  to  bide  the  time  until  this  can  be 
changed.  But  no  progressive  school  district  can  ever  afford 
to  make  a  decision  without  evidence,  nor  can  it  refuse  to 
listen  to  evidence  offered  in  connection  with  the  better 
development  of  the  neighborhood. 

Since  our  principles  of  government  are  democratic  in  char- 
acter, it  is  well  to  apply  these  same  principles  when  deciding 
local  affairs.  The  people  may  well  be  called  upon  to  decide 
an  important  plan  of  this  kind  by  the  use  of  the  franchise, 
but  their  decision  can  be  correct  only  after  they  have  studied 
the  question  fairly  together.  Any  decision  is  worthless,  of 
course,  if  not  based  upon  facts  and  upon  independent  under- 
standing. So  it  would  be  unfortunate  for  any  district  to 
make  a  decision,  either  individually  or  collectively,  without 
first  having  a  clear-cut  notion  of  the  case  based  upon  the 
best  possible  evidence  available.  Of  course,  our  different 
States  have  directed  the  plan  to  be  followed  by  the  laws 
which  they  have  enacted  for  governing  consolidation,  but 
the  right  of  petition  cannot  be  abridged  because  this  is 
guaranteed  by  the  National  Constitution  and  must  be  up- 
held by  every  State  Constitution.  Therefore  the  voice  of 
all  the  people  ought  to  be  heard  when  they  are  universally 
concerned  in  the  final  decision  to  be  made. 

The  plan  of  procedure  ought  to  be  determined  by  first 
ascertaining  what  provisions  are  made  by  law  for  instituting 
and  governing  consolidation  in  the  State,  and  the  plan 
should  be  presented  for  careful  study  to  all  of  the  people 
concerned.  Then  in  the  open  forum  every  question  should 


TYPES  OF  MODERN  CONSOLIDATED  SCHOOLS 

These  three  buildings  contain  four,  six,  and  eight  rooms,  reading  from  the  top  down- 
ward. Such  schools  can  be  made  community-center  schools  of  large  usefulness. 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS  141 

be  presented,  both  for  and  against  the  proposed  plan,  and 
placed  side  by  side  in  the  regular  order.  The  weight  of  the 
one  against  the  other  ought  to  be  honestly  applied,  and  the 
value  of  the  weight  should  be  set  forth  in  clear-cut  princi- 
ples. The  ultimate  aim  of  the  decision  reached  should  have 
the  best  educational  welfare  of  the  children  of  the  commu- 
nity as  the  prime  object,  because  this  translated  into  good 
citizenship  means  a  nation  established  upon  the  best  that 
mankind  has  to  offer. 

The  consolidation  movement  began  in  Massachusetts,  in 
1869,  but  the  first  State  west  of  the  Alleghanies  to  use  the 
idea  was  Ohio,  where  the  consolidation  of  schools  first  began 
in  1892.  Since  that  date  marked  progress  has  been  made 
not  only  in  Ohio,  but  in  many  of  the  Central  and  Western 
States  as  well.  Perhaps  the  most  important  consolidations 
have  been  accomplished  in  Indiana,  working  under  the 
township  system,  and  in  Utah,  working  under  the  county- 
unit  plan.  In  some  of  the  northern  counties  in  Indiana, 
where  the  land  is  relatively  level;,  almost  all  the  schools 
in  the  county  have  been  consolidated,  and  in  their  place 
there  exists  to-day  only  a  much  smaller  number  of  central- 
ized schools  of  the  best  class.  In  such  Southern  States  as 
Georgia  and  Florida,  as  well  as  in  such  Western  States  as 
Idaho  and  Washington,  good  progress  has  also  been  made. 

The  map  on  the  following  page,  showing  the  extent  to 
which  consolidation  had  taken  place  in  one  Indiana  county, 
illustrates  the  plan  very  well.  This  shows  that  eleven  con- 
solidated districts  had  been  formed  at  the  time  the  map  was 
made,  some  quite  small  and  others  fairly  large,  and  in  these 
all  the  one-teacher  schools  had  been  closed  and  the  children 
from  these  were  transported  daily  to  and  from  the  central 
schools.  The  children  in  such  are  gathered  up  in  wagons 
each  morning,  carried  three  or  four  or  five  or  six  miles  to  the 
central  school,  and  returned  to  their  homes  each  evening. 


LC6CHO 

CMC  ROOM  DISTIHCT  SCHOOL 8 

CONSOUOATCO    SCHOOL II 

BOUHMRr  Or  CONSOLIDATED  DISTRICT. £3S| 

SrfAM  HMO..., ,,,,,, 

ELECTRIC  ffMO 

JW* m 

MAP  SHOWING  SCHOOL  CONSOLIDATION  IN  ONE  INDIANA  COUNTY 

Area  of  county,  399  square  miles.  The  fine  lines  are  section  lines,  from  which  it  may  be 
seen  that  the  area  of  some  townships  is  30  and  of  others  25  or  36  square  miles.  At  the  time 
this  -nap  was  made,  rural-school  consolidation  had  extended  over  47.6  per  cent  of  the  urea 
of  the  county.  At  that  time,  too,  67  wagons  and  several  interurban  car  lines  transported 
daily  about  1300  school-children  to  and  from  school.  After  belonging  to  a  consolidated 
school  for  one  year,  one  district  in  Salem  Township  withdrew,  and  reopened  its  district 
school.  After  one  year's  retrial  of  the  old  plan,  the  patrons,  convinced  that  the  consolidated 
school  was  better,  abandoned  the  district  school  permanently,  sold  the  schoolhouses,  and 
returned  to  the  consolidated  school. 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS  143 

This  county  still  showed  fifty-one  one-room  schools  in 
existence,  and  it  is  probable  that,  either  by  uniting  with 
neighboring  unions  or  the  formation  of  additional  union 
schools,  the  remaining  fifty-one  schools  could  be  closed  and 
all  the  children  of  the  county,  outside  of  the  central  city, 
could  be  taught  in  some  fifteen  or  sixteen  consolidated 
schools,  and  taught  better  than  could  be  done  in  the  one- 
room  schools.  Where  a  county  is  relatively  level,  the  popu- 
lation not  too  sparse,  and  where  roads  will  permit  of  trans- 
portation, the  consolidation  of  schools  idea  has  much  to 
commend  it.  In  larger  consolidated  schools  a  type  of  edu- 
cation better  suited  to  the  needs  and  wants  of  country  chil- 
dren can  be  provided.  It  is  in  such  consolidated  schools, 
too,  that  the  community  centers,  mentioned  in  Chapter 
XIII,  can  best  be  developed.  Such  schools,  provided  with  an 
assembly  hall  and  rooms  for  instruction  in  agriculture,  man- 
ual training,  and  domestic  science,  and  often  with  partial 
high-school  advantages  attached,  become  landmarks  for  the 
country  round  about  and  matters  of  much  community 
pride. 

The  pictures  showing  three  means  for  transporting  pupils 
to  and  from  school  illustrate  the  three  main  plans  in  use. 
At  first  horses  and  wagons  were  used  almost  exclusively. 
Later  the  trolley  car  was  employed,  where  routes  would  per- 
mit, to  supplement  the  wagons.  With  the  coming  of  good 
roads  the  school  automobile  bus  is  rapidly  coming  into  use, 
superseding  horses  and  wpgons,  and  materially  lengthening 
the  distance  to  which  children  can  be  transported,  and  hence 
increasing  the  size  of  the  consolidated  district  that  is  pos- 
sible. About  six  miles  is  the  limit  of  horse  and  wagon  trans- 
portation; in  California  the  school  automobiles  are  carrying 
children  twenty  miles.  Instead  of  the  child  walking  to  a 
small  school  near  by,  the  consolidation  movement  changes 
the  process  and  carries  the  child,  often  some  distance,  to  a 


144    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

large  and  a  good  school,  and  often  to  one  where  he  can  obtain 
partial  high-school  advantages  as  well  and  a  general  educa- 
tion every  bit  as  good  as  the  city  boy  or  girl  to-day  enjoys. 
The  wagon  or  automobile  takes  him  from  his  home  each 
morning,  lands  him  safely  and  dry  at  the  school,  eliminates 
tardiness  and  much  absence,  and  takes  him  back  to  his  home 
each  evening. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  consolidation 
idea  may  be  summarized,  as  follows.     The  advantages  are: 

1.  Both  the  enrollment  and  the  attendance  for  the  consolidated 
area  are  increased.     The  gain  in  attendance  for  the  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades  is  particularly  marked.     The  pro- 
vision of  high-school  advantages  brings  in  older  pupils,  now 
absent  from  the  district  schools. 

2.  Tardiness  and  absences  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.     The 
driver  of  the  wagon  or  bus  becomes  the  school-attendance 
officer. 

3.  Pupils  arrive  dry  and  warm  each  day;  there  is  no  wet  clothing 
to  be  dried,  and  colds  and  other  troubles  due  to  exposure  are 
materially  reduced. 

4.  The  pupils  are  under  the  care  of  a  responsible  person  to  and 
fro,  and  quarreling,  smoking,  profanity,  vulgarity,  and  im- 
proper language  and  conduct  are  prevented.     In  some  com- 
munities such  protection  to  girls  is  very  desirable. 

5.  Better  grading  and  classification  of  pupils  is  made  possible, 
larger  classes  stimulate  rivalry,  and  new  interest  and  enthu- 
siasm are  introduced  into  the  school  work. 

6.  The  number  of  grades  which  each  teacher  has  to  teach  is  re- 
duced, with  a  consequent  lengthening  of  the  recitation  pe- 
riods.    Each  child  receives  more  and  better  attention. 

7.  The  special   school  subjects  —  music,   agriculture,   manual 
training,  household  arts  —  can  be  provided  for  in  a  way 
hardly  possible  in  the  one-room  school. 

8.  Better  school  buildings  and  sites  are  provided,  and  better 
teaching  equipment  secured.    This  is  made  possible  by  reason 
of  the  larger  taxing  area,  and  more  taxpayers  to  help  pay  for 
these  advantages. 

9.  Longer  school  terms  are  provided,  better  teachers  can  be 


\Vaj;o:]s  used  in  Sprinjffield  Township,  Clark  County,  Ohii: 


- 


Special  school  car  on  Cleveland  and  Southwestern  KK-ctric  Line  to  Elyria 


S<hool  automobile  in  Imperial  County,  California 
DIFFERENT  MEANS  FOR  TRANSPORTING  PI:PII,S 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS  115 

secured  and  retained,  and  supervision  somewhat  like  that 
which  has  made  the  city  school  so  successful  may  be  provided. 

10.  Community  interest  in  education  is  quickened,  and  commu- 
nity pride  in  the  school  awakened  to  a  new  degree.     The  com- 
munity is  improved,  as  well  as  the  school. 

11.  Enough  pupils  are  brought  together  at  one  place  to  permit  of 
organized  plays  and  games,  and  the  great  educative  value  of 
directed  play  is  made  available. 

12.  The  superior  advantages  cost  but  little  if  any  more,  and 
sometimes  actually  cost  less. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  plan  are  about  as  follows: 

1.  Dislike  of  parents  to  sending  their  children  so  far  away  from 
home,  little  realizing  that  a  child  who  has  to  walk  a  miie  is 
actually  farther  away  than  a  child  who  is  carried  six,  and,  in 
case  of  sickness,  in  a  much  more  serious  plight. 

2.  Necessity  of  taking  a  cold  noon  lunch,  instead  of  coming  home 
at  noon.     Few  country  children  do  come  home,  while  the  hot 
noon  lunch,  described  in  a  later  chapter,  can  be  made  to  solve 
all  such  objections. 

3.  Additional  expense  to  parents  to  provide  proper  clothing  for 
children  attending  a  larger  school.     This  objection  is  usually 
found  to  have  little  weight. 

4.  Children  obliged  to  travel  so  far,  start  so  early,  and  be  subject 
to  bad  company  en  route.     These  objections  are  sometimes 
based  on  facts,  but  usually  can  be  obviated  by  proper  trans- 
portation arrangements. 

5.  Consolidation  leads  to  the  depreciation  of  property,  and  de- 
creased valuation  of  farms  where  schools  have  been  closed. 
This  has  been  found  not  to  be  true  in  practice.     A  poor  one- 
room  school  on  a  farm  does  not  increase  its  value  as  much  as  a 
good  school,  five  or  six  miles  away,  to  which  children  have 
easy  access. 

6.  Local  jealousy;  an  acknowledgment  that  some  community  is 
attracting  population  or  securing  advantages  and  outstrip- 
ping other  sections.     There  is  no  remedy  for  this,  and  natural 
economic  forces  cannot  be  prevented  in  their  action,  whether 
schools  are  consolidated  or  not. 

7.  It  removes  an  ancient  landmark,  and  is  in  the  nature  of  an 
innovation.      Often   this  is  an  argument  for  consolidation, 
rather  than  against  it. 


146     HANDBOOK  FOB  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 


SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  strongest  points  in  favor  of  combining  several  one-room 
rural  schools  into  a  consolidated  union? 

2.  How  many  classes  is  it  necessary  for  a  teacher  of  a  one-room  school  to 
conduct  each  day  if  the  full  eight  grades  of  the  elementary  school  are 
represented? 

3.  How  often  should  children  recite  each  day,  and  what  time  ought  to  be 
given  to  each  class  in  order  that  the  character  of  the  work  be  up  to 
standard? 

4.  What  conditions  in  your  own  district  are  necessary  to  overcome  in 
order  to  make  consolidation  practical?     Considering  topography  and 
road  conditions,  what  districts  are  most  adaptable  to  become  a  part 
of  an  association  with  your  own? 

5.  What  would  you  consider  a  good  working  plan  for  the  investigation  of 
the  value  of  consolidation  and  its  effect  upon  the  educational  oppor- 
tunities offered? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
REDIRECTED  EDUCATION 

MUCH  has  been  said  recently  about  the  need  for  redirected 
education.  Business  men  have  urged  that  the  schools  too 
long  have  been  permitted  to  follow  along  a  well-beaten  path 
and  have  been  influenced  in  their  curricula  by  traditions 
long  since  out  of  date.  Such  men  have  usually  offered  crit- 
icism without  pointing  out  a  remedy,  and  to  this  extent  their 
statements  have  simply  become  destructive.  A  few  times 
remedies  have  been  offered  which  were  impossible,  under  ex- 
isting conditions  and  circumstances,  and  occasionally  sug- 
gestions have  been  made  which  have  proved  to  be  construc- 
tive and  valuable.  Such  a  situation  is  sure  to  come  about 
when  a  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  pervades  any  organization. 
Many  criticisms  which  have  been  offered  concerning  public- 
school  work  have  come  from  well-meaning  people  whose 
complaints  were  stated  in  glittering  generalities.  They  had 
no  basis  of  fact  at  hand  and  consequently  were  unable  to 
point  out  specifically  what  the  difficulties  were,  nor  could 
they  offer  any  workable  plan  for  improvement.  In  this  way 
much  criticism  was  made  that  wras  unwarranted,  and  many 
statements  were  made  which  were  unfounded.  It  is  clearly 
evident  that  the  direct  results  coming  from  such  criticism 
could  prove  in  no  way  beneficial  to  the  schools. 

Indirect  results  growing  out  of  this  destructive  criticism 
aroused  a  defensive  response  from  some  individuals  who  felt 
more  keenly  the  responsibility  for  existing  conditions,  and 
this  set  in  motion  a  wave  of  investigation  wThich  has  brought 
about  an  unbiased  study,  not  only  of  conditions  in  the 
schools  but  also  of  the  educational  needs  of  the  present  time. 


148     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

From  this  careful  study  comes  constructive  suggestions 
which  have  caused  a  "  testing  out "  of  many  new  things,  both 
in  plan  and  in  materials  used.  It  has  resulted  in  the  elimi- 
nation of  much  superfluous  matter,  and  in  adding  to  and 
enriching  the  school  curricula. 

It  has  also  had  the  effect  of  vitalizing  the  school  by  provid- 
ing a  lawful  coordination  with  practical  problems  which  the 
child  will  be  called  upon  to  meet  as  a  useful  citizen.  All 
material  traditional  in  character  is  under  investigation,  and 
evolutionary  work,  if  not  revolutionary  work,  is  in  progress. 
Many  mistakes  have  been  made  in  trying  to  readjust  too 
rapidly,  and  more  are  sure  to  come  in  connection  with  our 
further  changes.  This  should  not  discourage  us,  however, 
nor  cause  a  desire  to  turn  back  to  the  old  plan,  because  many 
improvements  have  been  made  which  are  decidedly  bene- 
ficial, and  on  the  whole  our  gains  are  many  times  greater 
than  our  losses. 

It  is  the  desire  of  every  good  citizen  to  make  the  public 
school  serve  in  the  largest  way  the  needs  of  a  progressive 
race.  It  is  the  wish  that  its  policies  and  plans  be  changed 
often  enough  to  keep  it  in  harmony  with  the  responsibilities 
demanded  of  its  people.  It  is  not  willed,  however,  that  it 
be  made  the  subject  of  constant  bickering,  nor  that  changes 
be  made  for  the  purpose  of  satisfying  the  whims  of  some  dis- 
gruntled individual.  Whatever  changes  are  made  should  be 
based  upon  a  careful  study  of  conditions  and  needs,  and  the 
new  plan  adopted  should  be  thoroughly  tested  by  actual 
practice  before  it  is  universally  accepted.  The  application 
of  wise  counsel  is  the  best  means  of  minimizing  mistakes, 
because  "in  the  multiplicity  of  judgment  there  is  less  chance 
for  error." 

To  make  any  plan  effective  requires  first  an  understanding 
on  the  part  of  the  people,  and  second  their  cooperative  in- 
terest in  carrying  it  into  effect.  From  this  we  must  conclude 


REDIRECTED  EDUCATION  149 

that  changes  cannot  be  made  too  rapidly,  nor  can  they  be 
forced  upon  the  people  by  arbitrary  means.  But  we  cannot 
and  must  not  remain  at  a  standstill;  we  must  go  forward. 
In  order  to  do  this  every  community  must  accept  some  new 
ideas  based  upon  the  investigation  of  others.  A  complete 
study  of  the  school  cannot  be  made  by  the  officers  in  every 
district,  but  it  is  possible  for  them  to  watch  results  growing 
out  of  investigation  and  to  note  principles  applied  in  other 
schools,  and  by  so  doing  determine  the  usefulness  of  such  if 
applied  to  their  respective  districts.  Again,  it  is  entirely 
safe  to  adopt  any  well-known  custom  in  so  far  as  it  applies 
to  the  needs  within  the  home  school. 

In  the  well-directed  plan,  the  child's  full  development  is 
considered.  Textbooks  can  be  used  only  as  a  means  toward 
this  end.  A  lesson  within  a  textbook  has  no  value,  except 
as  it  has  a  bearing  upon  the  needs  of  life.  Answering  ques- 
tions correctly  has  little  value,  unless  the  questions  stimulate 
thought  or  invoke  judgment.  The  old  plan  of  the  recitation 
must  give  way  to  the  newer  idea  of  intelligent  reaction.  The 
need  of  accuracy  can  be  best  understood  by  applying  it  to 
everyday  transactions.  The  child  on  the  farm  can  readily 
understand  what  it  would  mean  to  miscount  the  eggs  and  to 
sell  twelve  dozen  for  ten,  or  to  miscalculate  the  payment  in 
money  by  estimating  this  on  sixteen  dozen  when  the  actual 
number  was  eighteen  dozen.  He  can  readily  see  why  his 
mother  should  be  dissatisfied  with  fifteen  yards  of  cloth  when 
she  paid  the  merchant  for  seventeen  and  one  half  yards. 
The  introduction  of  manual  training  in  the  school  gives  prac- 
tical problems  for  measurement,  and  provides  the  means  for 
arithmetical  calculation  based  upon  something  real.  Domes- 
tic science  gives  the  girl  an  incentive  for  practical  reading; 
and  at  the  same  time  gives  her  a  new  vision  of  home- 
making,  and  a  greater  joy  in  work  which  sometimes  is  con- 
sidered only  as  a  necessary  routine  of  labor.  The  use  of  the 


150    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

hot  noon  lunch  is  not  only  conducive  to  better  health  condi- 
tions, but  offers  an  opportunity  for  the  establishment  of 
social  customs  and  of  establishing  personal  characteristics  of 
good  breeding.  Good  school-keeping  creates  a  desire  advan- 
tageous to  good  home-making,  and  orderly  habits  acquired 
through  proper  school  direction  will  carry  over  into  the 
child's  general  characteristics.  The  kindly  attitude  fostered 
on  the  supervised  playground  is  an  advantage  in  cultivating 
a  good  disposition.  So  it  is  that  redirected  education  means 
not  only  new  subject-matter,  but  also  a  practical  application 
of  all  school  activities  to  meet  individual  needs. 

The  manual-training  shop  offers  a  place  to  train  the  hand 
in  skill,  and  to  give  practical  knowledge  concerning  the  use 
of  tools.  Many  useful  articles  can  be  made  in  the  school 
shop  which  are  valuable  in  the  home,  while  at  the  same  time 
principles  of  arithmetical  accuracy  and  exact  measurements 
are  being  applied  as  lessons  of  individual  value.  The  boy 
works  as  he  thinks,  and  he  thinks  more  earnestly  because  of 
the  interest  he  finds  in  the  real  problem  he  is  working  out. 
The  same  principle  applies  to  home  economics  for  the  girl. 
The  stitches  learned  are  at  once  used  in  making  useful  arti- 
cles for  herself  or  for  some  member  of  the  family.  As  the 
work  advances  it  enlarges  in  opportunity,  and  becomes  more 
and  more  real  to  her  as  it  meets  her  own  necessity.  Cookery 
grows  in  interest  as  chemical  analysis  is  understood,  and  the 
changes  that  take  place  by  means  of  heat  are  discovered. 
When  it  is  shown  that  the  well-balanced  ration  applied  to 
the  three  meals  each  day  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  health, 
it  takes  on  an  added  interest. 

The  study  of  agriculture  gives  a  new  conception  of 
"Mother  Earth"  as  a  great  laboratory,  and  the  bounteous 
supply  of  wealth  which  she  yields  up  annually  through  her 
plant  life  for  mankind's  benefit.  To  know  the  relation  of 
soil  and  plant  life  is  important,  and  with  this  the  effect  that 


REDIRECTED  EDUCATION  151 

climate,  altitude,  and  latitude  have  upon  the  same.  Such 
knowledge  is  usable  and  at  the  same  time  offers  every  op- 
portunity for  study,  for  investigation,  for  the  application  of 
judgment;  it  provides  the  means  for  the  use  of  language,  for 
the  study  of  common  words,  and  for  making  calculations  of 
the  most  varied  character.  This  work  in  the  school  stimu- 
lates greater  activity  in  gardening,  in  rearing  farm  animals  of 
the  right  sort,  and  in  community  club  organizations.  It 
aids  in  the  development  of  better  things  in  general,  gives  aid 
to  county  and  state  fair  exhibits,  and  must  result  finally  in 
better  farming  and  better  products. 

The  school  must  be  provided  with  the  proper  means  of 
social  entertainment.  In  fact,  its  organization  should  be 
planned  in  a  manner  to  emphasize  this  continually.  The 
association  through  the  school  day  should  be  used  as  one  of 
the  best  means  of  educational  advancement.  To  do  this 
will  require  a  wholesome  attitude  of  mind  and  a  general 
respect  for  the  rights  and  privileges  of  others. 

Every  child  should  be  given  as  much  freedom  as  can  be 
used  for  his  advantage  without  infringing  upon  the  rights  of 
others.  The  greater  his  self-control,  the  more  freedom  can 
be  given.  So  the  school  organization  should  be  used  as  a 
means  to  encourage  the  liberty  of  each  child  by  giving  him  a 
more  wholesome  respect  for  the  rights  of  his  associates.  It 
should  be  used  as  a  restraining  influence  only  in  so  far  as  this 
is  necessary  to  suppress  the  baser  nature  until  a  more  whole- 
some attitude  toward  comrades  and  classmates  is  established. 
Good  surroundings  add  so  much  to  this  that  it  cannot  be 
emphasized  too  strongly.  Attractive  interior  conditions 
and  artistic  exterior  surroundings  have  their  disciplinary 
effect  and  provide  a  means  for  better  school  spirit. 

In  the  redirected  plan  the  school  should  be  able  to  extend 
its  influence  into  the  home  as  well  as  into  the  work  of  the 
community.  The  adult  members  of  the  family  must  find  an 


152    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

interest  in  the  work  that  is  being  done  in  order  to  stimulate 
greater  activity  on  the  part  of  the  family  members  who  are 
enrolled  in  the  school.  The  school  social  should  be  a  neigh- 
borhood event,  and  parents  should  cooperate  in  making  this 
a  success.  The  older  members  can  always  shape  the  direc- 
tion of  social  activities  if  they  enter  into  this  with  a  whole- 
some attitude.  As  an  educational  force  for  the  strengthen- 
ing of  character,  such  events  offer  the  rarest  opportunity. 

The  church  as  an  agency  for  shaping  thought  and  in- 
stilling nobler  ideals  should  enter  into  the  scheme  of  redirec- 
tion, and  by  so  doing  become  a  counterpart  of  the  plan  which 
eventually  must  win  for  it  universal  recognition.  It  must 
be  regarded  in  this  light  in  this  larger  plan  of  education. 
Spiritual  understanding  becomes  the  third  member  of  the 
great  triumvirate.  It  is  not  the  least  important  because  it  is 
mentioned  last.  It  occupies  this  place  rather  because  it  adds 
the  crowning  features  necessary  to  complete  the  symmetry  of 
the  perfect  human  being. 

Elsewhere  I  have  mentioned  the  need  for  health  and  the 
advantage  of  a  good  physique,  but  muscle  and  brawn  alone 
have  been  expressed  in  the  old  adage,  "A  strong  back  but  a 
light  head."  When  we  sharpen  the  mental  faculties  so  that 
the  mind  comprehends  clearly  and  realizes  fully  the  natural 
laws  and  their  application  to  life,  and  add  this  to  splendid 
physical  development,  we  still  have  an  individual  represent- 
ing but  two  thirds  of  what  was  intended  for  the  full  measure 
of  manhood.  How  necessary  each  of  these  is  to  complete 
success  is  quite  generally  known.  But  the  third  member  has 
not  come  to  be  universally  accepted  as  a  necessity  in  per- 
fecting the  plan.  When  this  is  done  man's  supreme  nature 
will  be  fully  established  on  earth  and  his  mission  will  come  to 
be  more  clearly  comprehended.  To  live  out  the  span  of  his 
allotted  years  will  not  be  enough,  but  he  will  stand  forth  as 
,  a  direct  representative  of  the  highest  creation  of  God. 


REDIRECTED  EDUCATION  153 

Redirected  education  should  aim  at  nothing  less  than  this. 
It  should  be  satisfied  with  no  means  which  provides  partial 
development.  It  must  call  to  its  aid  every  agency  which  can 
in  any  way  affect  man's  better  self.  It  cannot  forget  that 
the  early  years  represent  the  impressionable  time  and  the 
formative  period;  that  the  years  of  maturity  represent  the 
time  of  ripening  the  seed  thoughts  of  youth  into  mature 
judgment  so  that  this  may  be  applied  to  everyday  decisions. 
We  can  see  the  body  grow  stronger;  we  can  perceive  mind 
development;  but  we  must  be  able  to  feel  the  spiritual  in- 
fluences within  us  before  there  is  tangible  evidence  of  its 
actual  existence.  The  larger  plan  of  education,  then,  must 
include  the  school  with  every  advantage  that  can  be  offered; 
must  include  the  home  with  all  of  the  splendid  influences  and 
assets;  must  include  the  church  as  universally  necessary; 
must  include  any  other  and  all  other  agencies  that  may  be 
used  to  increase  man's  efficiency  and  enrich  his  conception 
of  the  full  measure  of  life.  In  promoting  such  redirected 
education  the  school  trustee  can  play  an  important  part. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  Since  education  must  adapt  itself  to  the  needs  of  our  people,  what  do 
you  consider  to  be  the  necessary  changes  in  order  to  redirect  our  school 
work  to  harmonize  with  the  necessities  of  the  present  time? 

2.  All  about  us  we  see  changes  in  the  plan  of  farming  and  new  inventions 
in  farm  machinery;  does  it  require  more  skill  to  conduct  a  modern 
farm  properly  than  it  did  half  a  century  ago,  as  you  understand  the 
need  of  that  time? 

3.  To  what  extent  can  a  school  prove  effective  if  it  is  conducted  wholly 
by  means  of  the  use  of  textbooks? 

4.  Do  those  who  work  scientifically  with  their  hands  think  less  specif- 
ically than  those  who  are  unable  to  apply  the  result  of  their  thinking 
to  practical  necessities  of  life  and  living? 

5.  To  what  extent  does  the  school  give  confidence,  so  that  the  young 
person  may  properly  apply  the  knowledge  in  a  practical  way? 

6.  What  definite  things  should  a  district  have  in  mind  when  making 
plans  for  a  school  in  which  it  expects  to  create  the  greatest  stimuli  for 
good  for  all  of  its  children? 


CHAPTER  XVII     , 
PRACTICAL  EDUCATION 

THE  terms  "practical  education"  and  "practical  training" 
have  come  to  be  quite  commonly  applied  to  the  vocational 
and  to  the  prevocational  side  of  our  educational  work.  The 
general  public,  it  seems,  has  come  to  think  of  our  educational 
system  as  having  a  practical  side,  and  another  side  which  has 
not  true  application  to  the  needs  and  requirements  of  life. 
It  may  be  noted  also  that  some  individuals  have  declared 
with  a  great  deal  of  emphasis  that  we  ought  to  have  less  book 
education  and  more  industrial  education.  The  fact  is  that 
there  has  been  quite  a  common  disagreement  as  to  just  what 
constitutes  the  best  kind  of  education,  and  what  process 
shall  be  used  in  securing  it.  These  controversies,  however, 
have  served  only  to  stimulate  thought  and  investigation, 
and  in  the  end  good  results  are  sure  to  come  from  them. 

A  long  time  ago  philosophers  attempted  to  define  educa- 
tion and  to  describe  the  exact  processes  to  be  followed  in 
order  to  obtain  it.  Each  man  in  his  time  believed  that  he 
was  able  to  give  the  correct  definition,  but  no  two  of  them 
exactly  agreed.  In  our  modern  age  our  best  educators  have 
concluded  that  education  is  really  something  indefinable; 
that  it  represents  a  development  so  broad  and  so  varied  that 
it  is  impossible  to  make  a  definition  which  accurately  includes 
all  its  phases.  Those  who  have  studied  the  question  most 
carefully  believe  that  any  kind  of  mental  development  is 
valuable,  but,  since  each  individual  has  but  a  limited  num- 
ber of  years  during  childhood  to  prepare  for  life's  duties,  it 
becomes  a  very  important  question  what  kind  of  curriculum 
should  be  followed  in  school  in  order  to  provide  best  for  life's 


PRACTICAL  EDUCATION  155 

greatest  possibilities  and  duties  in  the  allotted  time.  It  may 
be  well  to  say  at  this  time  that  it  is  generally  agreed  that,  as 
individuals  differ  in  their  characteristics  and  in  their  tastes, 
so  also  must  the  plans  and  processes  of  mental  development 
vary  in  order  to  make  possible  the  best  means  for  training 
children  in  such  a  manner  as  to  develop  their  highest  powers 
in  order  to  make  them  the  most  useful  citizens.  It  is  quite 
true,  of  course,  that  all  children  should  be  well  grounded  in 
the  essentials  which  are  to  be  used  as  a  foundation  for  the 
superstructure  of  their  special  training.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  each  child  take  exactly  the  same  subjects  throughout 
the  school  course.  In  practically  all  of  our  schools  there  will 
be  found  varied  courses,  and  the  right  of  choice  is  allowed  to 
all  students  in  so  far  as  the  course  chosen  does  not  become 
one-sided  in  its  nature.  In  other  words,  there  are  opportu- 
nities for  students  in  the  high  school  to  finish  the  course  by 
several  different  routes.  The  same  thing  is  now  permitted 
even  in  the  grades,  and  it  is  no  longer  thought  necessary  that 
each  student  shall  complete  the  subject-matter  just  as  it  has 
been  handed  down  through  the  traditions  of  the  past. 

Arithmetic  may  be  made  just  as  practical  as  bench-work 
in  manual  training.  In  fact,  arithmetic  becomes  practical 
when  it  is  applied  to  the  hand-work  necessary  to  the  best 
training  for  the  everyday  duties  of  life.  Geography  is  also 
practical  when  applied  properly  to  the  world's  great  com- 
merce and  the  industries  of  mankind.  History  is  practical 
when  studied  from  the  standpoint  of  the  development  of 
the  race,  with  proper  application  made  to  the  present-day 
conditions.  In  short,  it  may  be  said  that  any  subject  out- 
lined in  the  school  curriculum  may  be  made  of  the  most 
practical  character,  if  it  be  studied  aright  and  applied  in  the 
right  manner.  It  is  the  point  of  view,  then,  that  really 
makes  the  subject  what  it  is.  From  this  may  be  seen  that 
what  I  have  said  in  another  chapter  is  most  significant; 


156     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

namely,  that  the  teacher  thoroughly  trained,  having  the 
modern  viewpoint,  and  a  strong  personality,  may  put  into 
any  subject  so  much  of  her  own  life  and  characteristics  that 
it  will  become  intensely  interesting  to  a  class  of  young  peo 
pie  who  formerly  found  the  same  subject  very  dry  under  the 
instruction  of  a  different  type  of  teacher.  We  must  have, 
therefore,  not  only  our  chosen  subjects,  and  a  well-balanced 
school  curriculum,  but  we  must  have  the  classwork  in  each 
case  such  that  those  instructed  may  receive  the  maximum  of 
benefit.  We  ought  to  have  a  place  for  hand-work  if  the  child- 
life  is  to  be  properly  trained;  but  this  work  poorly  done,  with- 
out any  inspiration  and  without  arousing  the  interest  of  the 
class,  would  be  of  no  special  advantage.  Of  course,  there  is 
more  real  life-problem  in  work  of  this  character,  and  the 
native  tendencies  of  the  child  are  more  easily  influenced  in 
that  direction.  For  this  reason  it  is  much  easier  to  teach 
the  manual  arts  in  an  interesting  way  than  to  teach  formal 
grammar  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  class  appreciate  its 
worth  as  a  necessary  element  in  their  life's  training. 

Since  a  very  large  majority  of  those  who  enroll  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  never  have  an  opportunity  to  go  beyond  the 
eighth  grade,  it  is  quite  essential  that  we  begin  our  combina- 
tion course  of  study  as  far  down  in  the  grades  as  practicable, 
but  we  should  see  to  it,  whenever  work  of  the  so-called  "prac- 
tical" nature  is  made  part  of  the  regular  school  work,  that 
the  instruction  insure  training  that  is  valuable  to  the  chil- 
dren. If  manual  training  in  any  of  its  phases  is  taught,  the 
teacher  must  know  how  to  present  this  work  so  as  to  bring 
good  results.  Equipment  of  the  proper  kind  must  be  pro- 
vided whenever  work  of  this  kind  is  undertaken,  and  while 
it  need  not  be  an  expensive  department,  the  apparatus  must 
be  so  well  chosen  that  good  service  may  be  had  from  it. 
Things  that  relate  to  home  and  farm  should  receive  empha- 
sis, and  the  work  should  include  the  mending  of  shoes  and 


PRACTICAL  EDUCATION  157 

harness  and  cement  work.  In  the  home-economic  depart- 
ment the  essentials  may  be  provided  very  reasonably,  but 
even  in  the  one-room  school  the  work  of  the  department  can 
be  made  most  valuable  and  most  practical  to  the  school  an<J 
to  the  community.  A  hot  lunch  served  at  the  noon  hours, 
and  lunches  served  during  community  meetings,  are  some 
of  the  practical  ways  in  which  such  a  department  may  be 
made  to  serve  directly. 

To  every  child  should  be  given  some  glimpse  into  Mother 
Earth's  great  laboratories  and  storehouses.  He  should 
know  how  man's  cooperation  with  Nature's  laws  makes  the 
earth  yield  up  her  rich  treasures  to  feed  millions.  The  child 
should  be  made  to  understand  that  scientific  laws  are  re- 
vealed through  Nature  and  life  that  surround  him  on  every 
side.  Plant-life  and  the  animal  world  both  offer  stores  of  a 
most  interesting  and  practical  character.  Real  agriculture 
should  be  introduced  into  the  upper  grammar  grades,  with 
emphasis  placed  on  the  home  community.  The  live-stock 
of  the  neighborhood  is  worthy  of  most  careful  consideration 
in  connection  with  this  study.  Orchards  and  fruit  trees 
should  be  thoroughly  examined.  The  Babcock  Milk  Tester 
should  be  a  part  of  the  equipment  in  every  neighborhood  in 
which  dairying  is  the  occupation  of  the  people.  The  weeds 
of  the  neighborhood  will  form  the  basis  of  a  great  deal  of 
field  and  research  work.  Selection  and  testing  of  seeds,  if 
rightly  directed,  may  be  made  very  helpful  to  the  farmers 
of  the  community.  Farm  machinery  and  its  improvement 
offers  a  large  field  for  investigation.  Roads  and  road- 
building  should  receive  a  place  in  this  special  work. 

The  subject  of  agriculture  when  introduced  into  the  grades 
of  the  common  schools  should  not  be  bookish,  but  should 
come  out  of  the  natural  conditions  existing  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. If  carried  on  in  this  way  the  children  will  come 
to  know  their  own  community  as  they  have  not  known  it 


158     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

before,  and  will  come -to  appreciate  the  occupation  of  their 
fathers  as  they  are  not  likely  otherwise  to  do.  Farming  is 
not  a  routine  of  events  and  circumstances,  as  some  would 
have  us  understand.  It  has  in  it  the  most  of  life,  the  great- 
est possibilities,  the  most  elevating  ideals,  and  the  most 
sacred  principles  found  in  any  occupation  known  to  civilized 
mankind.  When  put  upon  this  basis,  work  in  the  soil  be- 
comes a  pleasure  and  not  a  drudgery.  The  earth  becomes  a 
scientific  laboratory  to  the  intelligent  mind,  and  great  joy 
comes  to  him  to  whom  Mother  Earth  trusts  her  most  pre- 
cious secrets. 

What  we  need  in  our  school  is  a  well-balanced  curriculum 
which  will  give  the  best  insight  into  life.  That  is  to  say, 
it  should  provide  regular  classroom  work  based  upon  a 
combination  of  textbook  instruction  and  its  application  to 
everyday  duties  and  requirements.  This  is  very  necessary 
to  the  best  mental  development  and  training;  it  gives  the 
learner  an  opportunity  to  gain  a  great  deal  of  knowledge 
from  the  experience  of  the  past.  There  is  also  a  mind  devel- 
opment that  should  come  to  the  child  through  his  own  ex- 
periences made  possible  through  permanent  investigation. 
A  well-balanced  program  will  provide  for  both  kinds  of 
learning,  divided  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  about  the  best 
training  for  the  pupil.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
public  school  is  organized  for  childhood  and  youth,  and  all 
the  directing  forces  should  tend  to  make  this  institution  a 
place  where  child-life  may  be  trained  for  good  citizenship, 
and  be  prepared  to  do  the  world's  work  in  a  creditable 
manner. 

As  our  social  and  economic  conditions  change  from  decade 
to  decade,  so  also  must  the  school  change  to  meet  the  new 
demands  in  citizenship.  Every  child  should  be  trained  in 
such  a  manner  that  he  will  fit  into  the  conditions  around  him 
in  a  harmonious  way  and  be  able  to  live  a  happy  as  well  as  a 


PRACTICAL  EDUCATION  159 

useful  life.  If  every  individual  is  able  to  apply  the  knowl- 
edge there  is  at  hand  in  the  right  manner,  then  the  problems 
that  arise  from  time  to  time  will  be  easily  solved.  No  knowl- 
edge, therefore,  is  worth  while  unless  it  can  be  utilized  in 
some  way  for  good.  It  must  bring  comfort,  it  must  give  joy, 
either  to  one's  self  or  to  others,  or  it  is  of  no  effect.  We  may 
say,  then,  that  the  greater  the  comfort  or  joy  which  comes 
from  it,  the  more  valuable  a  possession  it  proves. 

The  public  school  has  been  organized  for  many  years,  and 
represents  the  different  time-conditions  through  which  it 
has  passed.  The  very  best  thought  of  the  time  has  been 
given  to  it,  and  despite  the  fact  that  it  has  recently  been 
subjected  to  severe  criticism,  it  is  an  institution  which  is  and 
ought  to  be  the  pride  of  our  land.  It  has  surely  done  a  great 
work  if  results  are  to  form  the  basis  of  our  decision.  Our 
great  commonwealth  has  prospered  under  its  influences  to 
such  an  extent  that  we  have  made  greater  progress  in  the 
last  century  than  was  made  in  two  thousand  years  under  the 
ancient  form  of  education.  In  comparing  the  nations  of  the 
world  that  have  public  educational  systems,  with  those  that 
have  none,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  education  pays  as  no 
other  enterprise  of  the  people  can  pay.  Intelligence  is  the 
prime  requirement  for  national  as  well  as  for  individual  pros- 
perity; hence  the  basis  for  all  our  wealth  and  progress  must 
be  laid  in  our  common  schools. 

Let  us  consider  then,  wisely  and  well,  and  make  such  im- 
provements in  this  institution  as  the  spirit  of  the  times  de- 
mands; let  us  be  ever  willing  to  modernize  public-school  work 
and  bring  it  into  close  relationship  with  life  and  living. 
But  let  us  look  askance  at  any  one  who  can  only  find  fault 
with  the  earnest  efforts  of  the  past,  and  who  advocates  toss- 
ing aside  everything  old  connected  with  education  and  put- 
ting something  wholly  new  in  its  place.  Such  radical  meas- 
ures have  always  worked  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  common 


160     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

good,  and  from  the  historic  past  we  learn  that  great  results 
brought  about  gradually  have  been  those  that  have  stood  the 
test  of  time  and  proved  their  worth  in  the  world's  slow  but 
steady  advance.  The  school,  as  it  is  now,  needs  thought  and 
consideration.  It  needs  cooperation  in  devising  ways  and 
means  for  its  best  development.  It  needs  our  earnest  sup- 
port, rather  than  our  wholesale  condemnation,  if  we  would 
make  it  a  better  institution  than  it  now  is. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  Are  there  any  subjects  taught  in  our  common  schools  that  are  not 
practical  in  their  application  to  our  needs,  and  therefore  not  necessary 
to  our  educational  development? 

2.  Do  you  consider  the  subject-matter  itself,  or  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  taught  in  order  to  make  it  applicable,  of  greater  importance? 

3.  What  definition  would  you  give  for  education,  as  you  would  have  it 
apply  directly  to  the  development  of  your  own  children? 

4.  How  would  you  compare  the  value  of  the  personal  element  vitalized 
by  the  teacher,  and  the  academic  element  portrayed  in  the  adopted 
textbooks,  in  their  value  to  stimulate  the  best  effort  in  children? 

5.  What  subjects  do  you  consider  absolutely  necessary  for  each  child  to 
study  in  order  to  create  a  broad  general  basis  in  education  through 
our  elementary  schools? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  THE  HOME  ECONOMICS 

THE  public-school  system  has  always  been  interested  in  the 
welfare  of  its  patrons  —  the  general  public  —  and  has  been 
keen  to  give  to  them  the  best  that  education  has  in  store. 
With  this  end  in  view  the  public-school  system  has  studied 
the  subject  of  manual  training;  it  has  been  endeavoring  to 
determine  what  to  teach  and  what  not  to  teach,  and  what 
are  the  best  methods  of  teaching  that  which  it  does  teach. 
It  has  been  testing  theories  concerning  manual  training 
—  determining  the  content  of  manual  training  which  is 
adaptable  to  the  public  schools.  It  has  been  sifting  out  the 
false  from  the  true. 

And  now  it  says  to  us  that  as  a  result  of  this  careful  study, 
these  experiments  and  this  sifting-out  process,  that  manual 
training  is  equally  valuable  and  applicable  to  the  schools  of 
the  great  metropolis,  of  the  small  centers  of  population,  of 
the  villages,  and  of  the  rural  communities,  and  that  a  system 
of  manual  training  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  complete 
harmonious  development  of  every  individual;  that  it  lays 
the  foundation  upon  which  is  built  the  training  by  which 
nine  tenths  of  our  entire  population  earn  a  livelihood,  and 
that  it  furnishes  an  important  means  of  self-expression  to 
the  individual. 

Real  education  is  that  development  and  training  of  the 
individual  which  best  fits  him  to  meet  successfully  the  prob- 
lems put  upon  him  by  his  environment.  These  problems 
are  many  and  varied,  and  differ  with  each  individual.  They 
consist  essentially,  first,  in  securing  a  livelihood;  second,  in 
promoting  the  general  welfare  of  the  community;  and  third, 


162     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

in  contributing  as  large  a  share  as  possible  to  the  permanent 
improvement  and  advancement  of  the  community,  of  the 
State  and  Nation,  and  of  humanity  at  large. 

The  legitimate  aim  of  manual  training  in  all  fields  is  to 
train  the  individual  to  see  things  in  their  proper  relations,  to 
know  that  which  is  worth  knowing,  and  to  do  practical  and 
useful  things.  Closely  and  inseparably  linked  with  manual 
training  is  vocational  guidance  and  vocational  education. 
Every  teacher  whenever  possible  should  render  vocational 
guidance,  but  no  other  teacher  has  the  opportunity,  in  this 
respect,  which  the  manual-training  teacher  has,  since  nine 
out  of  every  ten  pupils  whom  he  teaches  —  and  he  should 
teach  all  —  must  earn  a  living  by  use  of  the  hands,  or  in 
other  words,  by  an  industrial  occupation.  What  the  indi- 
vidual does  in  manual  training  is  by  far  the  safest  guide  as 
to  what  vocation  his  abilities  will  best  fit  him  for. 

This  training  gives  a  broad  outlook  upon  the  field  of  in- 
dustries, and  lays  the  foundation  upon  which  may  be  de- 
veloped skill  in  the  various  trades  and  industrial  callings. 
Even  the  one  child  in  ten  in  our  public  schools  who  does  not 
become  a  tradesman  or  an  industrial  worker  of  any  sort  is 
greatly  helped  by  this  work,  for  without  it  he  can  never  at- 
tain complete  development  and  can  never  be  so  well  bal- 
anced as  with  it.  If  he  is  to  become  a  banker,  the  better 
judgment  which  has  been  developed  by  his  training  in  ob- 
servation, and  his  careful  study  of  the  relation  of  things,  will 
make  him  a  better  financier.  Likewise,  if  he  is  to  become  a 
lawyer,  his  mind  will  respond  more  quickly,  he  will  act  with 
more  confidence  and  precision,  and  he  will  have  a  keener  ' 
insight  into  the  affairs  of  men  for  this  training.  If  he  is  to 
become  a  merchant,  the  knowledge  gained  of  materials  will 
be  directly  useful  to  him,  and  he  will  have  a  more  definite 
knowledge  of  the  process  of  manufacture  and  of  the  finished 
product  which  he  uses  in  his  business.  And  so  we  might  go 


MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  HOME  ECONOMICS     163 

on  and  show  advantages  gained  for  the  work  of  the  various 
professions  and  callings. 

Abstractly,  manual  training  develops  the  ability  to  ob- 
serve, to  reason;  emphasizes  habits  of  industry,  neatness,  ac- 
curacy, and  order;  tends  to  create  self-confidence;  brings  the 
mind,  the  eye,  and  the  hand  into  more  perfect  coordination; 
teaches  the  dignity  of  labor,  and  the  appreciation  of  beauty 
and  design  in  construction;  and  altogether  makes  the  indi- 
vidual who  receives  its  advantages  a  more  efficient  citizen, 
because  that  which  teaches  the  dignity  of  labor,  accuracy, 
beauty,  and  strength  tends  to  produce  a  truthful,  honest, 
and  industrious  individual. 

When  education  in  the  rural  communities  realizes  its  pos- 
sibilities, our  boys  and  girls  who  are  now  leaving  the  farm 
and  flocking  to  the  already  overcrowded  cities  will  engage  in 
scientific  farming,  stock  raising,  and  fruit  growing,  and  op- 
portunities for  success  nowhere  else  to  be  equalled  will  be 
realized.  That  education  is  most  valuable  which  is  most 
practical.  That  is,  the  things  which  are  taught  must  be 
those  which  the  child  can  make  use  of  at  the  present  time, 
especially  in  the  lower  grades.  The  real  interest  which  a 
child  has  in  education  is  embodied  in  that  part  which  he  may 
make  serve  his  immediate  purpose. 

Manual  training  is  not  a  distinct  and  independent  subject; 
it  is  rather  the  fundamental,  vital,  and  vitalizing  part  of  all 
or  most  subjects.  To  discuss  manual  training  in  even  its 
most  important  relations  with  other  subjects  would  be  the 
work  of  an  entire  volume;  hence  this  discussion  of  the  sub- 
ject treats  it  as  more  or  less  isolated  and  apart  from  its  rela- 
tion to  other  subjects.  In  this  connection  it  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  from  one  third  to  one  half  the  entire  time  of  the 
school  day  should  be  given  to  the  manual  side  of  the  various 
subjects,  and  that  all  experimental  and  laboratory  work  is 
manual  training. 


1G4     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

That  manual  training  is  vitalizing  is  shown  by  the  results 
obtained  in  many  schools,  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  In 
some  of  these  schools  only  the  pupils  who  were  backward, 
deficient,  or  indifferent  were  given  the  distinctly  manual- 
training  work.  In  most  cases,  improvement  in  interest  was 
shown,  and  in  many  cases  improvement  in  health  was  shown. 
In  schools  where  the  comparisons  were  made,  the  backward, 
the  dull,  or  the  indifferent  child  was  able,  in  many  cases, 
after  one  or  two  years  in  a  manual  training-school,  to  pass  a 
better  test  in  the  regular  subjects  of  the  school  curriculum 
than  the  fair  or  brighter  pupils  who  remained  in  the  regular 
schools.  And  of  course,  besides  having  a  better  knowledge 
of  the  subjects  of  the  regular  school,  the  formerly  backward, 
dull,  or  indifferent  student  had  a  vast  amount  of  useful  train- 
ing and  knowledge  which  the  other  pupils  lacked  almost  en- 
tirely. The  dormant  powers  of  the  individual  are  awakened 
and  stimulated  by  his  contact  with  real  things.  The  final 
test  of  all  education  is  whether  it  produces  in  the  individual 
the  power  to  do.  If  it  does,  it  is  good;  if  it  does  not,  it  is 
of  little  value.  The  keynote  of  all  manual  training  is  useful- 
ness. The  key  to  "what  to  teach"  is  found  in  the  interests 
of  the  community. 

When  we  say  that  all  manual  training  must  be  useful,  we 
should  be  careful  that  we  understand  what  we  mean  by  use- 
ful, for  herein  have  many  erred.  Some  form  of  work  in 
manual  training  should  start  with  the  earliest  grades,  and 
should  continue  throughout  the  grades.  At  first  very  little 
should  be  attempted.  Toward  the  end  of  grade  work,  the 
proportion  should  be  about  half  and  half.  The  things  made 
are  useful  if  they  satisfy  a  need  which  the  child  feels,  or 
if  they  help  him  to  express  his  individuality,  —  himself. 
They  may  be  utterly  useless  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
adult.  School  gardens  furnish  a  fertile  field  for  manual 
training.  Problems  in  paper  folding  and  cutting,  cardboard 


MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  HOME  ECONOMICS     1G5 

construction  work,  booklet  making,  coping  saw  work  in  thin 
woods,  raffia,  reed  and  textile  work  or  their  substitutes  in 
local  materials,  are  the  sources  of  the  earlier  manual  training 
in  the  grades.  Fundamental  to  this  work  and  coordinated 
with  it  throughout  should  be  the  work  in  drawing.  Many 
of  these  problems  involve  training  in  color  and  design;  so 
the  artistic  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  practical  in  all 
of  the  work  undertaken.  This  again  illustrates  the  possi- 
bilities of  tying  together  all  school  work  into  a  single  educa- 
tive process. 

Up  to  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade  the  work  for  girls  and  boys 
may  be  the  same,  or  practically  the  same,  varying  only  with 
the  teacher's  opportunities.  Beginning  with  the  sixth  grade 
the  work  for  the  two  sexes  should  take  somewhat  different 
form  —  the  boys'  work  involving  manual  training  in  its 
more  complete,  organized  form,  and  the  girls  giving  their 
attention  to  the  work  of  home  economics.  In  both  cases 
the  problems  of  work  should  be  planned  and  formulated  in 
close  connection  with  the  needs  of  the  community.  They 
should  not  only  look  forward  to  the  present  needs,  but 
should  seek  to  formulate  means  of  improvement  in  the 
community  and  should  stimulate  new  interest  for  general 
betterment. 

In  manual  training  for  the  boys  the  outlined  course  should 
provide  for  the  use  of  such  materials  as  wood,  cold  metal, 
leather,  and  concrete.  The  problems  in  wood  should  in- 
volve the  construction  of  useful  articles  about  the  home  on 
the  ranch.  The  problems  in  cold  metal  should  be  largely 
repair  work  —  making  use  of  tin,  sheet  iron,  brass  and  cop- 
per, and  of  the  heavier  materials.  The  problems  in  leather 
should  involve  the  repairing  of  shoes  and  harness.  The 
problems  in  concrete  should  consist  of  the  study  of  the 
composition  and  proportion  of  substances  for  different 
mixtures,  a  study  of  the  effect  of  different  methods  of  treat- 


16C     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

ing  the  materials,  and  finally  the  general  plan  of  moulding 
these  mixtures  into  useful  articles.  In  all  wood  problems, 
articles  should  involve  the  different  kinds  of  joints,  using 
the  simplest  first,  and  should  involve  the  use  of  the  com- 
mon tools  —  each  one  in  its  turn  with  careful  explanation 
given  by  the  teacher  concerning  its  name  and  its  particular 
use.  In  the  beginning  the  boys  may  make  birdhouses, 
chicken  feeders,  wash  benches,  blackening  boxes,  etc. 
Later  the  work  may  be  made  more  difficult,  and  include 
hog  feeders,  water  troughs,  whipple-trees,  three-horse  even- 
ers,  etc.  Excellent  water  troughs,  lawn  seats,  and  orna- 
ments can  be  made  from  concrete,  using  reinforcing.  In 
sheet  metal  the  first  articles  should  be  very  simple,  such  as 
an  automatic  match  box,  biscuit  cutter  funnel,  measuring 
cup,  and  the  like. 

Every  boy  should  be  encouraged  to  provide  himself  with 
a  set  of  good  tools,  beginning  with  the  simpler  pieces  first 
and  building  toward  a  complete  set  which  will  best  serve  his 
purpose  on  the  farm.  All  should  be  taught  how  to  care  for 
tools,  and  to  keep  them  in  a  systematic  and  orderly  way. 
They  should  learn  that  to  be  valuable  a  tool  must  be  kept  in 
good  condition.  It  is  necessary  to  work  from  drawings  or 
from  blue-prints  just  as  soon  as  the  work  becomes  sufficiently 
complicated  to  require  a  working  plan. 

The  work  for  the  girls  should,  at  this  differentiated  period, 
involve  problems  in  the  specific  field  of  home  economics. 
The  time  should  be  about  equally  divided  between  cookery 
and  sewing.  In  sewing  the  economy  of  clothing  should  be 
taught.  The  beginning  work  would  involve  the  different 
stages  and  the  necessary  hand-work  connected  with  good 
home-making.  Wool  and  cotton  fabrics  should  be  studied, 
both  from  the  standpoint  of  warmth  and  composition.  Raw 
material  should  be  used  as  samples,  in  order  to  show  how 
fibrous  materials  lend  themselves  to  the  mechanical  process 


MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  HOME  ECONOMICS     167 

of  weaving.  It  is  important  for  girls  to  know  how  to  mend 
their  clothing  properly  and  to  keep  their  wardrobe  in  a  good 
wholesome  condition.  In  connection  with  this  work  there 
is  an  opportunity  to  teach  habits  of  industry,  thrift,  neat- 
ness, and  accuracy,  as  well  as  technical  skill. 

In  cookery  the  problems  should  include  the  simple  study 
of  foods,  food  values,  and  the  need  of  a  balanced  ration, 
from  the  standpoint  of  cost  as  well  as  from  the  standpoint  of 
food  value.  It  is  important  to  have  the  proper  classification 
and  understanding  in  order  to  select  wisely.  The  proper 
care  of  foods  is  also  of  great  importance.  In  connection 
with  this  work  it  is  well  to  teach  the  pupils  care  of  utensils 
as  well  as  the  proper  care  of  foods.  Since  serving  is  an  im- 
portant part  of  a  palatable  meal,  this  should  be  emphasized 
through  means  of  practical  demonstration.  The  aim  of  this 
work  should  be  to  develop  standards  of  health,  right  living, 
livelihood,  and  proper  application. 

There  are  now  many  books  published  which  give  specific 
outlines  both  in  manual  arts  and  in  home  economics  which 
are  adaptable  to  the  upper  grade  work,  and  it  would  seem 
well  to  have  a  well-balanced  guide-book  as  an  outline  for  the 
teacher  and  as  a  standard  for  the  pupils.  Of  course  it  is 
entirely  proper  to  teach  all  of  this  work  without  the  use  of 
any  book,  and  there  can  be  no  objection  to  such  a  plan  if  the 
teacher  is  thoroughly  prepared.  The  use  of  the  book  is 
suggested  because  of  the  fact  that  in  the  rural  schools  the 
teacher  has  many  other  problems,  and  usually  finds  a  well- 
selected  text  of  great  help  in  minimizing  her  arduous  tasks 
and  in  maximizing  the  opportunities  offered  to  the  children. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  How  would  you  combine  academic  subject-matter  with  manual-train- 
ing classes  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results  from  the  child's  time  in 
school? 


168     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

2.  Should  parents  decide  what  their  child  should  follow  as  a  vocation, 
and  begin  early  in  life  to  train  him  for  that  work;  or  should  they  expect 
his  development  and  adaptation  to  determine  this  better  as  he  grows 
into  maturity? 

3.  How  can  we  best  teach  the  dignity  of  labor  and  the  value  of  service, 
so  that  our  children  will  have  the  right  conceptions  as  to  these  things? 

4.  Evidences  of  a  scientiflc  age  are  portrayed  everywhere  about  us; 
should  this  be  less  adaptable  in  its  application  to  farming  than  to 
other  lines  of  activity,  such  as  business,  commerce,  etc.? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  HOT  LUNCH  AND  ITS  VALUE 

No  discussion  of  rural  school  problems  is  complete  without 
some  mention  of  the  hot  lunch  now  served  in  schools  in 
nearly  every  State  of  the  United  States.  The  serving  of  hot 
food  to  children  in  school  is  not  a  recent  innovation.  It 
began  in  Europe  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  the  custom  now  prevails  in  Belgium,  Denmark,  Holland, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Spain,  Switzerland,  and  the  United  States. 
In  America  the  work  was  begun  in  Massachusetts.  Now 
the  school  lunch  in  one  form  or  another  is  appearing  in  all 
parts  of  our  country,  in  the  schools  not  only  of  the  larger 
cities,  but  also  of  the  more  remote  country  districts. 

That  the  custom  of  serving  hot  lunches  to  children  at 
school  has  spread  rapidly  and  has  reached  large  proportions 
indicates  that  it  is  meeting  a  universal  need.  Physicians, 
school  nurses,  teachers,  and  others  interested  in  the  conser- 
vation of  childhood  have  long  argued  that  wholesome  food 
helps  materially  in  the  promotion  of  both  the  physical  and 
the  mental  vigor  of  children,  the  food  supplying  the  energy 
not  only  for  bodily  growth  and  play,  but  also  for  mental 
growth  and  study.  It  is  this  strong  conviction  on  the  part 
of  those  who  have  studied  the  problem  that  has  added  the 
hot  noon  lunch  to  our  schools. 

The  children  to  whom  the  lunch  basket  is  a  necessity 
should  receive  much  more  careful  and  thoughtful  consider- 
ation than  they  do  at  present.  They  are  often  obliged  to 
go  a  long  distance  to  school,  and  during  the  winter  days,  es- 
pecially, hurry  off  with  little  or  no  breakfast.  They  spend 


170     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

the  greater  part  of  the  day  in  a  room  not  too  well  ventilated, 
and  as  soon  as  school  is  out  they  eat  their  cold  lunch  hur- 
riedly and  rush  off  to  play. 

Hurried  eating  prevents  proper  salivation  and  conse- 
quently proper  digestion,  the  mechanics  of  which  are  thus 
forced  upon  the  stomach.  This  greatly  increases  the  work 
of  the  stomach  and  the  chemical  changes  are  postponed. 
Superimpose  upon  this  the  conditions  arising  from  insuffi- 
cient blood  supply  —  the  result  of  physical  exercise  begun 
immediately  after  the  eating  —  and  there  is  the  beginning 
of  digestive  disturbances  which  sooner  or  later  affect  the 
child's  efficiency. 

It  ought  to  be  possible  for  every  rural  school  to  make  pro- 
vision to  give  the  children  at  least  one  kind  of  warm  food  at 
noon.  This  might  be  prepared  and  served  by  a  committee 
chosen  from  the  different  classes,  and  would  require  only  a 
few  cooking  utensils.  No  school  is  too  poor  to  make  a  be- 
ginning in  this  work;  and  a  beginning  once  made  the  work 
will  stand  on  its  merits.  It  is  remarkable  how  money  and  en- 
thusiasm will  come  to  the  support  of  a  real  idea  with  a  real 
plan  for  its  execution.  No  adverse  criticism  has  been  heard 
from  pupils,  teachers,  nor  patrons  where  the  plan  has  been 
tried.  All  have  become  enthusiastic  supporters  of  the 
work. 

The  following  is  an  expression  of  a  mother's  appreciation 
whose  five  children  wrere  attending  a  rural  school  where  the 
hot  lunch  was  served  at  the  noon  hour.  This  sentiment 
could  be  duplicated  many  times  from  expressions  of  mothers 
who  have  learned  to  appreciate  the  value  of  this  in  connec- 
tion with  school  work. 

MY  DEAR  Miss  HOLDEN:  I  want  to  write  you  a  few  words  in  favor 
of  the  hot  lunches  you  are  serving  to  the  children,  in  hopes  that  I 
may  interest  some  parents  who  have  not  had  the  opportunity  of 
getting  acquainted  with  the  work. 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  AND  ITS  VALUE  171 

For  a  year  we  have  been  sending  five  children  to  the  training  de- 
partment of  the  Normal  School  at  Cheney,  where  they  have  re- 
ceived the  hot  lunches  served  there.  The  benefits  they  have  re- 
ceived are  many.  Their  physical  health  has  improved  and  all  have 
gained  in  ability  to  do  their  school  work.  The  training  they  have 
received  in  manners  and  culture  is  the  most  noticeable  in  home  life. 
When  one  of  them  does  not  eat  as  he  should,  another  will  say 
"What  would  Miss  Holden  say  if  she  could  see  you  do  that?" 
This  is  a  great  help  to  the  busy  parent,  and  at  the  same  time 
strengthens  the  relationship  between  the  home  and  the  school  —  a 
very  desirable  thing.  The  hot  lunch  has  solved  the  problem  of  the 
lunch  for  the  mother,  as  she  can  depend  upon  the  school  lunch  to 
supplement  the  cold  food  brought  from  home,  and,  too,  she  can 
rely  upon  it  being  the  kind  of  food  the  child  needs.  The  cost  is  not 
so  great  as  when  the  child  carried  all  the  lunch  from  home,  because 
the  mother  can  put  up  a  much  more  simple  lunch  to  be  eaten  with 
the  hot  food  served  at  school.  Our  children  all  enjoy  the  hot  lunch 
and  the  opportunity  to  sit  at  a  table,  so  much  more  than  they  did 
the  cold  lunch  and  the  old  way  of  eating  it.  I  sincerely  wish  that 
every  child  who  has  to  carry  a  cold  lunch  to  school  could  have  such 
lunch  benefits  as  the  children  do  who  are  able  to  have  it  served  to 
them,  as  I  understand  they  do  in  many  of  the  rural  schools,  and  I 
believe  they  might  if  parents  only  knew  of  the  work  carried  out  by 
and  advocated  by  the  Normal  School.  I,  for  one,  shall  be  glad  to 
help  in  spreading  this  information  by  writing  to  any  one  who  de- 
sires any  further  knowledge  on  the  subject  if  a  self-addressed, 
stamped  envelope  is  enclosed. 

MRS.  MARY  W.  KNOWLES 

The  teacher  who  has  aspirations  for  her  pupils  will  wel- 
come the  serving  of  the  noon  lunch  as  an  opportunity  for 
constructive  thinking  by  means  of  which  children  become 
genuinely  socialized.  She  will  make  use  of  the  opportunity 
to  give  lessons  in  domestic  science,  which  will  be  full  of  in- 
spiration because  of  their  immediate  and  practical  utility. 
The  girl  in  the  country  home  knows  a  little  about  cooking, 
but  usually  only  enough  to  make  her  despise  it.  It  does  not 
appeal  to  her  as  something  worth  thinking  about;  its  appeal 
is  more  often  from  the  viewpoint  of  hard  and  thankless 


172     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

work.  To  study  cooking  at  school  throws  a  different  light 
upon  it,  and  gives  a  child  a  new  and  lasting  interest  in  it; 
thus,  it  produces  a  more  thorough-going  and  sympathetic 
cooperation  between  the  school  and  the  home.  The  cooking 
itself  appeals  to  a  fundamental  and  universal  interest  of 
children  and  consequently  arouses  their  best  effort.  It  pro- 
vides an  opportunity  for  an  activity  that  is  entirely  free 
from  the  danger  of  mental  overstrain;  it  furnishes  the  oppor- 
tunity to  impart  much  necessary  information  in  regard  to 
healthful  living  —  in  the  study  of  the  cleansing  process,  in 
the  study  of  the  preparation  and  care  of  the  food,  and  in  the 
manipulation  of  mechanical  contrivances  necessary  for  the 
carrying  out  of  these  processes;  it  helps  the  children  under- 
stand the  significance  of  simple  food  principles  and  values 
which  strongly  influence  their  lives  and  physical  develop- 
ment; it  gives  training  in  habits  of  order,  neatness,  thought- 
fulness,  helpfulness,  and  good  table  usage;  and  it  supplies 
ample  material  for  self-expression  and  for  training  in  com- 
munity life. 

The  noon  lunch  arouses  a  vital  and  intelligent  interest  in 
the  school  garden  —  an  important  feature  of  present-day 
education  —  the  fundamental  importance  and  far-reaching 
consequences  of  which  have  not  reached  their  highest  devel- 
opment. Lessons  in  hygiene  and  table  etiquette  may  be 
given  more  impressively  in  a  natural  setting;  so  also  may 
training  in  conversation,  which  helps  each  child  to  feel  that 
he  is  an  integral  part  of  the  community.  A  recent  writer 
says,  "What  makes  for  hygienic  living  is  as  well  worth 
knowing  from  the  economic  standpoint  as  what  mechanical 
appliances  will  most  increase  the  output." 

Since  the  habits  of  children  are  likely  to  follow  them 
through  life,  it  is  very  desirable  that  they  be  trained  to 
observe  at  the  table  the  unwritten  code  of  good  breeding. 
Through  active  participation  in  conversation  children  soon 


THE  HOT  Xoox  LUNCH  IN*  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  AND  ITS  VALUE  173 

realize  that  it  is  the  duty  of  every  one  to  make  the  daily 
luncheon  hour  an  occasion  of  mutual  entertainment,  atten- 
tion, and  courtesy,  as  well  as  refreshment. 

If,  as  is  generally  conceded,  the  school  of  to-day  is  a  social 
organization  reaching  out  and  touching  life  at  every  other 
possible  point,  thus  enriching  its  own  life,  then  it  would  seem 
that  all  things  tending  to  make  each  member  of  the  school 
feel  his  relation  to  the  organization  as  a  whole,  and  accept 
his  responsibility  for  the  whole,  are  vital  to  the  life  of  that 
organization.  Whatever  establishes  in  the  child  the  habit 
of  doing  work  for  the  profit  and  pleasure  of  the  community 
is  a  great  factor  in  the  development  of  community  spirit. 

The  school  is  a  place  wherein  pupils  and  teachers  live 
together.  A  large  part  of  every  day  is  spent  there,  and 
pupil  and  teacher  interests  center  about  the  school  (mite 
as  strongly  as  the  family  interest  centers  about  the  home. 
They  are  in  a  measure  a  family,  and  their  success  and  unity 
depend  largely  upon  their  opportunities  for  coming  together 
in  an  informal  way.  The  noon  lunch  is  a  common  meeting 
ground.  It  is  a  meal  where  all  the  children  meet  with  the 
teachers,  where  all  cooperate  for  the  pleasure  and  well-being 
of  the  whole,  and  where  all  relate  their  best  experiences  in 
the  choicest  language  at  their  command.  This  daily  as- 
sembling around  the  table  brings  about  a  truly  friendly  feel- 
ing and  puts  each  child  and  teacher  into  direct  contact  with 
the  personality  of  the  other  children  and  teachers.  The 
little  children  learn  from  contact  with  the  older  ones,  and 
the  older  ones  get  an  insight  into  the  interest  of  the  little 
ones  that  develops  a  helpful  protecting  sympathy.  The 
environment  forbids  individual  selfishness,  and  each  child 
learns  that  he  is  individually  responsible  for  the  happiness 
and  interest  of  the  wrhole  group.  This  is  ideal  community 
life. 

Objection  has  been  made  to  taking  the  time  of  the  school 


174     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

for  cooking,  something  which  should  be  taught  in  the  home. 
If  scientific  and  economical  domestic  economy  were  taught 
in  the  home,  the  objection  would  be  valid;  but  it  is  impossi- 
ble for  the  busy  and  often  overworked  mother  on  the  farm 
to  keep  abreast  of  the  many  changes  that  are  constantly 
taking  place  in  this  great  problem  of  efficient  housekeeping. 
It  would  require  far  more  time  than  the  average  mother  has 
at  her  disposal  to  glean  from  the  various  sources  requisite 
knowledge  of  the  right  kind  of  home.  This  brings  this  work 
to  the  school,  and  every  thoughtful  mother  should  recognize 
that  the  time  spent  in  the  cultivation  of  the  studies  for 
home-making  is  just  as  valuable  as  that  spent  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  book  information.  Schools  are  an  organic  growth  of 
society,  and  represent  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  practical 
wants  of  the  Nation.  While  book  information  was  sufficient 
to  meet  the  educational  needs  of  our  forefathers  a  century 
ago,  it  does  not  meet  the  needs  of  the  twentieth-century 
child;  therefore,  the  school  of  to-day  should  offer  every  child 
an  opportunity  to  receive  a  practical  education  —  one  which 
may  fit  him  to  hold  his  own  in  the  rough  work  of  actual  life, 
and  by  means  of  which  he  may  become  socially  efficient. 
The  efficient  person  of  to-day  must  be  a  doer  among  others, 
a  laborer  in  society,  a  co-worker,  a  cooperator.  The  school 
must  adjust  its  course  of  study  to  meet  the  practical  needs  of 
to-day  and  to  send  forth  into  life  the  best  possible  prospec- 
tive men  and  women.  These  considerations  should  dispel 
the  prejudices  of  those  persons  who  feel  that  there  is  no  time 
in  school  for  practical  work  —  especially  for  the  girl  whose 
mission  in  life  must  ultimately  be  that  of  the  home-keeper. 
All  workers  for  improvement  of  the  home  recognize  that 
the  hope  of  this  improvement  depends  upon  better  prepara- 
tion of  home-makers  for  their  duties.  Cooking  in  connec- 
tion with  the  noon  lunch  offers  an  opportunity  for  a  begin- 
ning in  the  training  of  girls  that  is  essential  to  the  success 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  AND  ITS  VALUE  175 

and  happiness  of  their  lives  and  the  lives  of  others  in  the 
home.  There  is  sufficient  evidence  in  the  world  about  us 
that  education  is  incomplete,  and  that  our  schools  do  not 
yet  fulfil  their  highest  function.  When  our  courses  of  study 
are  so  adjusted  that  the  practical  and  the  theoretical  in 
education  supplement  each  other,  idleness  will  be  done 
away  with,  and  every  moment  count  for  growth;  then  the 
children  of  this  great  land  will  come  into  possession  of  their 
birthright. 

A  mother  recently  expressed  her  hearty  approval  of  our 
plan  in  the  following  language : 

Those  who  believe  that  the  duties  of  citizenship  are  as  important 
as  those  of  family  life,  and  that  the  ability  to  dwell  harmoniously  in 
communities  and  to  work  for  the  common  good  is  an  important 
end  in  education,  value  the  training  that  is  given  during  the  one 
meal  at  which  all  the  children  of  a  neighborhood  sit  down  together 
and  at  which  there  is  an  opportunity  to  add  to  the  spirit  of  fellow- 
ship developed  in  the  home,  the  spirit  of  a  larger  fellowship  with 
all  those  of  the  community. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  good  reasons  are  there  for  the  fact  that  people  desire  to  have 
their  meals  served  hot  and  immediately  after  cooking? 

2.  What  reasons  are  generally  given  for  under-nourishment,  of  mal- 
nutrition, as  applied  particularly  to  children? 

3.  What  effect  does  indigestion  have  upon  the  skin  of  the  individual,  as 
well  as  upon  his  physical  vigor  and  strength? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  a  well-balanced  ration  as  applied  to  food  for  the 
human  family? 

5.  What  means  should  be  ased  in  order  to  make  the  cold  lunch  serve 
the  purpose  of  giving  proper  vitality  to  our  children,  who  must  de- 
pend upon  this  important  midday  meal  at  school? 


CHAPTER  XX 
HEALTH  EDUCATION  AND  MEDICAL  INSPECTION 

THE  twentieth  century  is  marked  by  an  awakened  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  children.  To-day  no  conference  convenes 
without  considering  the  child  problem.  The  teacher  and 
the  social  worker  are  receiving  instruction  in  health  matters 
as  a  part  of  their  training.  Municipal  authorities  are  trying 
to  reach  parents  through  the  agencies  of  school  inspection, 
visiting  nurses,  public  lectures,  and  exhibits.  Many  of  our 
States  have  also  recently  required  the  addition  of  health 
supervision  and  instruction  in  hygiene  to  the  requirements 
for  all  village  and  rural  schools,  and  have  required  the  ap- 
pointment of  county  school  health  officers.  With  all  such 
efforts  the  rural  trustee  should  heartily  cooperate,  and 
hearty  cooperation  will  follow  when  school  trustees  come 
to  have  an  intelligent  conception  of  the  needs  for  and  the 
purposes  of  the  wrork. 

In  the  public  schools  the  health  work  is  now  being  carried 
on  with  varying  degrees  of  emphasis  through  the  following 
agencies : 

1.  Medical  inspection,  which  includes  supervision  of  sanitary 
conditions  and  of  school  hygiene;  which  provides  for  examina- 
tion of  teachers  and  children;  for  a  record  of  personal  and  of 
family  history;  and  for  the  correction  of  physical  defects.     It 
also  urges  special  classes  for  mental  defectives,  and  the  isola- 
tion of  contagious  and  parasitic  diseases. 

2.  Instruction  in  hygiene  and  physical  education  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  school  program. 

3.  Attention  to  the  hygiene  of  instruction. 

4.  Cooperation  of  the  home  and  all  health  agencies. 


HEALTH  EDUCATION;  MEDICAL  INSPECTION     177 

School  Sanitation 

The  first  step  in  the  health  program  for  the  school  is  se- 
curing an  environment  as  free  as  possible  from  unhealthful 
conditions.  School  conditions  are  an  index  to  community 
welfare.  School  sanitation  considers  certain  things  as  es- 
sential to  a  well-regulated  wholesome  environment  for 
teachers  and  pupils.  Many  of  the  faults  in  school  sanita- 
tion are  not  within  the  control  of  the  teacher,  such  as  the 
system  of  lighting,  heating,  sewage  disposal,  and  ventila- 
tion, which  are  often  wrong  by  construction.  But  teachers 
heretofore  have  suffered  through  the  neglect  of  the  training 
school  to  prepare  them  for  the  supervision  of  health,  and  to 
develop  in  them  a  health  conscience,  and  a  practical  knowl- 
edge of  sanitation  and  hygiene.  The  failure  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  we  have  grown  up  in  schoolrooms  where  many 
undesirable  conditions  exist.  We  have  not  been  trained  in 
sensitiveness  to  health  conditions,  and  have  not  realized 
that  much  of  the  suffering  as  well  as  the  economic  waste  may 
be  prevented. 

The  person  who  can  permit  himself  to  become  stupid 
in  a  warm,  poorly  ventilated  room  is  suffering  from  a  lack 
of  sense-training  in  connection  with  health  environment. 
Every  schoolroom  must  have  fresh,  clean,  moving  air, 
properly  governed  by  heating  and  ventilating  apparatus. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  teacher  needs  to  know  what  consti- 
tutes good  air,  and  what  dangers  there  are  in  overheating  a 
room  or  reducing  its  proper  amount  of  humidity.  The  in- 
jurious conditions  of  bad  air  are  excessive  temperature,  un- 
usual humidity,  exhalations  and  disease  germs  from  unclean 
clothing  and  unhealthy  bodies,  and  dust  from  the  floor, 
blackboard,  corners,  crevices,  and  mouldings.  The  tempera- 
ture of  a  schoolroom  should  not  fall  below  64  degrees  nor 
exceed  68  or  TO  degrees,  while  the  humidity  should  be  be- 
tween oO  or  60  per  cent. 


178     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

As  said  before,  there  must  be  air  in  motion,  and  for  this 
reason  some  device  must  be  adopted  for  allowing  the  air  to 
come  into  the  room  without  causing  a  draught.  There  are 
good  ventilating  systems  even  for  one-room  schools,  but  if 
such  a  system  cannot  be  provided,  special  window  boards 
and  a  ventilator  under  the  stove  will  be  very  helpful.  It 
has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  by  improving  conditions 
of  ventilation  in  the  schoolroom  there  will  be  less  liability 
to  sickness,  and  consequently  a  greater  capacity  for  work 
on  the  part  of  both  pupils  and  teacher. 

The  teacher's  health  is  very  important;  first,  for  herself, 
and  second,  because  her  health  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
the  attitude  of  the  school  toward  health.  Nervous  "break- 
downs" among  teachers,  so  often  attributed  to  overwork, 
are  in  many  instances  the  result  of  wrong  sanitary  condi- 
tions, and  lack  of  recreation  or  proper  food. 

Every  teacher  should  be  trained  to  protect  pupils  against 
eye  injury  and  eye  strain  in  the  schoolroom.  We  are  told 
by  medical  authorities  that  eyes  are  often  weakened,  if  not 
ruined,  by  glazed  paper  and  blackboard  surfaces,  lines  of  the 
wrong  length,  unsteady,  dazzling  light,  and  prolonged  con- 
centration. Required  home  study  may  deprive  a  child  of 
necessary  play  and  sleep,  and  by  so  doing  may  aggravate 
the  effects  of  harmful  school  environment. 

A  teacher  should  be  made  aware  also  of  the  effects  of  dry 
sweeping.  This  fills  the  air  with  dust,  and  combines  with 
bad  ventilation,  lack  of  water,  and  dust-raising  physical  ex- 
ercises, to  supply  conditions  which  favor  the  spread  of  dis- 
ease germs,  more  particularly  the  tubercular  bacilli.  Floors 
should  always  be  cleaned  in  a  way  to  prevent  the  scattering 
of  dust.  This  may  be  done  by  the  use  of  the  vacuum  cleaner, 
or  by  sprinkling  the  floor  with  "  Waxene,"  "Dust  Glow,"  or 
a  similar  preparation. 

Nor  must  muscle  comfort  be  disregarded.     Seats  and 


HEALTH  EDUCATION;  MEDICAL  INSPECTION     179 

desks  not  properly  regulated  according  to  a  child's  size  fre- 
quently deform  the  spine  and  the  hips,  and  cramp  the  lungs. 
In  the  matter  of  school  furniture  there  is  little  uniformity 
in  this  country.  Numerous  styles  of  desks,  adjustable  and 
otherwise,  are  on  the  market.  Some  of  these  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  adjust.  A  few  are  supposed  to  be  so  easily  manipu- 
lated that  a  child  can  change  one  himself.  At  present  there 
is  a  strong  leaning  toward  light  weight  tables  and  chairs  of 
different  heights  for  the  schoolroom.  The  position  at  the 
desk  or  table  that  is  best  for  writing  is  not  good  for  hand- 
work or  reading.  The  child,  however,  can  be  easily  taught 
where  to  place  the  chair  for  the  different  kinds  of  seat-work, 
and  should  be  encouraged  to  change  his  position  for  comfort 
and  bodily  rest. 

Other  things  needing  constant  surveillance  are  the  drink- 
ing cup,  towels,  and  toilets.  The  common  drinking-cup 
is  now  almost  invariably  tabooed,  because  disease  germs 
are  easily  transmitted  by  its  use.  The  plan  of  having  in- 
dividual cups  is  open  to  criticism,  because  they  are  not  pro- 
tected from  dust.  When  a  bubble  fountain  cannot  be  pro- 
vided, each  child  should  carry  an  individual  drinking-cup  in 
his  lunch  pail.  The  common  towel  is  almost  as  objection- 
able as  the  drinking-cup,  because  of  the  possibility  of  con- 
veying skin  diseases,  and  infection  of  the  eyes  and  of  the 
nasal  cavities.  While  the  laundering  of  many  small  towels 
would  seem  too  much  of  a  problem,  paper  towels  have  been 
found  very  satisfactory,  or  each  pupil  may  bring  his  own 
towel  and  attend  to  the  laundering  of  it.  The  unsanitary 
toilet  is  both  a  physical  and  a  moral  menace,  and  ought  to 
be  eliminated  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

Medical  Inspection 

Medical  inspection  is  a  department  of  health  education, 
and  its  object  is  to  promote  the  happiness  and  the  efficiency 


180     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

of  the  child  by  preserving  and  improving  his  health.  There 
are  several  angles  from  which  we  may  look  at  the  matter  of 
health  for  the  school  child: 

1.  The  individual  child  himself,  and  the  man  or  woman  he  may 
become.     The  child  is  biologically  the  most  important  mem- 
ber of  society,  and  should  have  the  opportunity  of  developing 
into  the  best  individual  possible,  with  his  given  heredity. 

2.  The  patrons  who  trust  their  children  to  the  school.     They 
should  see  to  it  that  the  environment  there  is  conducive  to 
health  of  body,  mind,  and  morals. 

3.  The  taxpayer,  or  the  economic  viewpoint.    As  a  business  pro- 
position the  investment  of  moneys  in  the  schools  should  yield 
the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  in  the  lives  of  the  boys  and 
girls  educated.     This  efficiency  depends  upon  good  health. 

Medical  inspection  includes  a  careful  and  thorough  exam- 
ination of  the  physical  condition  of  children.  These  exami- 
nations vary  in  thoroughness,  but  in  a  general  way  may  be 
taken  to  mean  inspection  of  nose,  throat,  skin,  chest,  joints, 
and  feet;  testing  of  vision  and  hearing;  examination  of  heart 
and  lungs;  for  the  five  primary  physical  defects  are  poor 
vision,  nose  and  throat  obstructions,  deafness,  decayed 
teeth,  and  poor  nutrition.  Boys  and  girls  unable  to  breathe 
through  the  nose  because  of  adenoids  or  enlarged  tonsils 
frequently  fail  in  their  school  work  because  they  cannot  con- 
centrate on  the  work  assigned,  and  many  an  unthinking 
teacher  has  punished  children  for  their  seeming  neglect  when 
they  were  really  not  to  blame. 

If  a  child  be  found  free  from  all  of  these  five  primary  phy- 
sical defects,  he  is  likely  to  remain  strong  through  the  school 
year.  Where  the  work  of  a  child  is  very  poor,  or  his  actions 
and  habits  so  peculiar  that  his  normality  is  questioned,  a 
test  of  his  mental  powers  should  be  made. 

As  a  result  of  improper  schoolroom  conditions,  revela- 
tions have  been  made  as  to  the  profound  influence  which 
defects  of  the  eyes,  ears,  nose,  throat,  and  teeth  have  upon 


THE  \Viu)\(,  KIND  OF  SCHOOL  TOILET 

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HEALTH  EDUCATION;  MEDICAL  INSPECTION  181 

the  general  health,  and  ultimately  upon  the  disposition  and 
the  conduct  of  a  child.  For  instance,  the  direct  effects  of 
bad  teeth  are  pain,  at  the  expense  of  time  and  sleep,  foul 
breath,  and  improperly  chewed  food,  which  causes  poor 
nutrition  and  lessened  resistance  to  disease.  Decay  of  baby 
teeth  often  causes  decayed  or  unsound  and  crooked  perma- 
nent teeth,  and  may  be  the  cause  of  infection  of  the  glands 
of  the  neck,  or  of  the  jaw  bone,  or  even  infection  of  the  mid- 
dle ear,  causing  deafness. 

The  child  that  is  anaemic  may  be  found  to  be  undernour- 
ished because  of  his  inability  to  chew  his  food  properly. 
Malnutrition  is  one  of  the  most  serious  conditions  found  in 
children,  and  a  careful  investigation  has  shown  that  about 
eight  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  children  enrolled  in 
school  suffer  from  it.  The  poorly  nourished  child  is  usually 
below  weight,  thin,  pale,  and  of  a  pinched  facial  expression. 
He  does  not  always  come  from  the  homes  of  the  poor;  for 
the  causes  of  malnutrition  are  poor  food,  bad  air,  and  in- 
sufficient rest  and  sleep,  —  all  of  which  are  the  exact  oppo- 
sites  of  the  primary  requisites  of  health. 

Poor  food  has  a  variety  of  meanings.  The  food  may  be 
insufficient  and  the  child  half  starved.  Or  it  may  be  im- 
properly cooked  —  the  frying-pan  has  ruined  thousands  of 
stomachs.  It  may  not  have  the  right  ingredients  —  may 
lack  green  vegetables,  or  fats,  or  proteids.  It  may  include 
tea  and  coffee,  which  are  harmful  stimulants  having  no  food 
value  at  all. 

Lack  of  sunshine  and  fresh  air  will  produce  anaemia  in 
children  as  surely  as  a  plant  will  lose  its  color  when  placed  in 
the  same  surroundings.  Lack  of  rest  and  sleep  is  another 
contributory  cause.  A  child  from  five  to  six  years  needs  at 
least  eleven  to  twelve  hours  of  sleep.  From  six  to  eight  a 
child  should  have  ten  to  eleven  hours  of  sleep;  from  eight  to 
ten  from  ten  to  eleven  and  one  half  hours  of  sleep;  from  ten 


182     HANDBOOK  FOR  RUEAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

to  twelve  from  nine  and  a  half  to  eleven  hours  of  sleep;  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  from  nine  and  a  half  to  ten  and  one  half 
hours  of  sleep,  and  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  nine  to  ten  hours 
of  sleep.  If  the  child  is  getting  less  than  this  amount  of 
sleep,  according  to  age,  if  he  has  formed  the  habit  of  staying 
up  late,  he  is  not  having  a  fair  chance  to  grow  and  develop  as 
he  should. 

There  should  be  on  record  the  family  as  well  as  the  per- 
sonal history  of  each  child.  The  family  history  shows  the 
nationality  and  the  age  of  the  parents,  their  health  condi- 
tion, and  the  number  of  other  children  in  the  family.  The 
nationality  of  parents  helps  us  to  know  to  what  disease  the 
child  will  have  the  least  resistance.  For  instance,  the  South 
Sea  Islanders  succumb  very  easily  to  measles,  because  they, 
as  a  people,  have  but  recently  become  exposed  to  this 
disease.  The  negro  is  not  infected  with  malaria  because 
of  acquired  immunity  as  the  result  of  long  exposure.  His- 
tory of  rheumatism  in  the  life  of  the  parents  may  explain 
nervous  diathesis  in  the  child.  Every  inquiry  made  into 
the  life  of  the  child  or  the  parents  has  some  good  reason 
back  of  it. 

We  might  go  on  and  show  the  seriousness  of  the  different 
defects  commonly  found  in  school  children.  It  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  they  are  serious,  in  that  each  one  of  them  handi- 
caps the  child  in  some  way,  and  therefore  retards  his  prog- 
ress at  school.  Retardation  is  a  heavy  expense,  and  any- 
thing a  community  can  do  to  improve  the  child's  ability  to 
go  through  school  at  a  normal  rate  is  economy.  The  extent 
of  retardation  in  schools  of  this  country  is  on  the  average 
thirty- three  and  one  third  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment. 
This  means  that  three  out  of  every  ten  pupils  leave  school 
lacking  a  year  or  more  of  work  which  they  should  have  had. 
The  chief  causes  of  retardation  are  late  entrance,  mental 
deficiency,  irregular  attendance,  and  physical  disabilities. 


HEALTH  EDUCATION;  MEDICAL  INSPECTION    183 

Children  with  defects  make  slower  progress  in  their  school 
work. 

Medical  inspection  must  be  constructive.  The  defect  dis- 
covered, must,  if  possible,  be  corrected  and  the  disease 
treated.  In  answer  to  the  inquiry  as  to  just  how  much  may 
be  accomplished,  one  can  make  no  definite  statement.  In 
some  instances  provision  may  be  made  for  free  treatment  in 
clinics  or  by  specialists,  wiien  parents  are  unable  to  pay  but 
are  at  the  same  time  willing  that  the  child  should  be  helped. 
Nothing  should  ever  be  attempted  without  the  permission  of 
the  parents. 

Medical  inspection  was  first  introduced  into  the  school  in 
connection  with  the  work  undertaken  to  control  epidemics 
• — contagious  and  parasitic  diseases  —  and  this  still  remains 
one  of  the  important  phases  of  the  health  program.  The 
more  frequent  and  serious  infectious  diseases  are  scarlet 
fever,  measles,  smallpox,  chicken  pox,  tonsillitis,  diphtheria, 
mumps,  whooping  cough,  colds,  persistent  cough,  trachoma, 
pink-eye.  The  detection  of  contagious  or  of  parasitic  dis- 
eases in  their  early  stage  is  important.  We  no  longer  say 
that  the  child  may  as  well  have  the  children's  diseases  and 
have  them  over  with,  for  we  know  that  the  younger  the 
child  the  more  far-reaching  the  effects  of  the  disease,  and 
that  each  year  he  escapes  infection  improves  his  chances  of 
not  having  these  diseases  at  all. 

We  also  know  that  the  last  few  years  have  disclosed  many 
of  the  carriers  of  disease,  such  as  the  mosquito,  the  fly,  and 
the  rat.  Even  the  pet  dog  and  the  house  cat  may  become 
carriers.  The  little  girl  who  brought  into  the  house  a  stray 
cat  and  begged  permission  of  her  mother  to  keep  "  this  per- 
fectly good  cat  she  found  in  the  ash  barrel"  developed  a  crop 
of  ring-worm  in  a  few  days. 

It  is  necessary  to  require  children  who  have  had  any  of 
these  diseases  to  remain  at  home  for  some  time,  after  ap- 


184     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

parent  recovery.  Parents  sometimes  fail  to  see  the  wisdom 
of  this,  but  it  may  safely  be  said  that  while  it  is  not  safe  for 
the  school  to  have  the  little  convalescent  back,  it  is  equally 
true  that  such  additional  time  is  needed  for  a  complete  re- 
covery. Very  often  a  child  who  has  had  diphtheria  will  be 
a  "carrier"  for  weeks  after  his  recovery.  Healthy  persons, 
who  are  able  to  resist  invasion  of  the  germs,  may  carry  them 
in  the  throat  or  nasal  passages  and  give  them  off  to  others 
who,  because  they  are  less  strong,  will  come  down  with  the 
disease.  Prevention  of  infectious  diseases  is  progressing 
very  rapidly.  Small  pox  has  been  marvelously  conquered 
by  vaccination.  Typhoid  fever  is  very  greatly  reduced,  and 
the  crusade  against  the  fly  is  telling  in  favor  of  general 
health  conditions.  Against  measles,  mumps,  whooping 
cough,  chicken  pox,  and  scarlet  fever,  no  preventive  meas- 
ures other  than  the  time-honored  ones  of  avoidance,  isola- 
tion of  the  sick,  and  final  disinfection  have  so  far  been 
discovered. 

Food  inspection  is  already  governed  by  Federal  and  State 
laws.  No  community  should  consider  their  children  safe 
from  tuberculosis  until  they  have  state- wide  inspection  of 
dairy  and  milk.  Vegetables  eaten  without  cooking,  as  let- 
tuce, celery,  etc.,  can  harbor  disease  germs  if  washed  or 
watered  with  polluted  water. 

Practical  Hygiene 

When  the  health  supervision  or  medical  inspection  is  to  be 
introduced,  the  initiatory  steps  are  meetings  of  parents  and 
patrons  of  the  district  at  which  some  one  may  speak  upon 
the  matter  of  hygiene  of  the  school.  If  the  sentiment  of  the 
majority  is  in  favor  of  some  action,  it  is  well  to  have  some  one 
present  who  is  properly  qualified  to  pass  upon  the  condition 
of  the  school  premises,  and  to  make  physical  examination  of 
the  pupils.  If  possible,  the  parents  should  be  present  when 


HEALTH  EDUCATION;  MEDICAL  INSPECTION     185 

their  children  are  examined.  A  report  of  the  condition 
should  be  made  to  the  parents.  The  success  of  the  move- 
ment, thus  started,  depends  upon  securing  the  right  person 
to  carry  on  the  follow-up  work  by  bringing  the  home  and 
school  together  in  considering  the  importance  of  the  work 
as  it  pertains  to  the  health  of  the  children.  This  supervisor 
must  be  specially  prepared  for  the  work,  and  must  have, 
in  addition,  the  tact  and  wisdom  in  dealing  with  people  that 
will  make  it  possible  for  her  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the 
parents  and  teacher. 

Rural  communities  are  solving  the  problem  by  employing, 
for  a  number  of  schools,  one  person  who  divides  her  time 
among  them.  This,  v/ith  the  cooperation  of  the  teacher  who 
realizes  her  obligation  and  has  had  training  in  caring  for  the 
whole  child  organism,  is  sure  to  prove  a  very  effective  plan. 
A  number  of  the  States  have  already  provided  special  means 
to  meet  this  need. 

The  medical  inspectors  encourage,  as  a  part  of  the  health 
program  in  the  school,  the  teaching  of  hygiene  and  the  work 
of  physical  education.  A  valuable  part  of  health  education 
is  the  training  of  the  pupils  to  feel  themselves  a  part  of  the 
community,  and  therefore  responsible  for  the  protection  of 
public  health.  This  social  training  is  vital  in  all  phases  of 
school  work,  but  particularly  so  in  connection  with  hygiene. 

Hygiene  is  not  a  subject,  and  cannot  be  taught  by  talk- 
ing about  health  alone.  Hygiene  is  a  practical  force,  a 
method,  a  way  of  living;  and  we  are  trying  to  add  to  the 
moral  code  the  right  and  duty  to  be  healthful  as  well.  If 
we  take  the  matter  of  posture,  which  we  have  thought  of  as 
appearing  well  and  as  keeping  straight,  and  consider  it  as 
the  expression  of  a  state  of  mind,  then  it  can  be  understood 
how  it  comes  to  be  the  expression  of  wide-awake  mental 
willingness  to  do,  to  be  useful  in  the  world. 

The  ambition  of  a  teacher  who  is  teaching  hygiene  is  the 


186     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

inculcation  in  the  lives  of  the  children  in  school  of  those 
habits  of  living,  thinking,  feeling,  and  doing  that  will  be 
for  their  good,  so  that  later  in  life  they  may  devote  their 
conscious  efforts  to  something  less  personal  than  thinking 
of  their  bodily  condition.  Health  is  not  the  end,  but  the 
means  to  the  end  of  living  happily  and  successfully  in  the 
circumstances  in  which  we  find  ourselves. 

Everyone  knows  that  the  ways  of  acting,  called  habits,  are 
easy  to  form  and  difficult  to  change.  Habits  are  a  great 
economy,  carrying  on  most  of  our  actions  for  us  and  leaving 
us  free  to  think  about  other  things.  We  should  not  progress 
far  in  this  life  if  we  had  to  think  just  how  to  take  every 
step,  or  guide  the  muscles  in  the  hand  when  writing.  One 
noted  authority  has  well  said: 

There  should  be  insistence  in  schools,  as  well  as  in  the  higher 
institutions  of  learning,  upon  the  cardinal  principle  that  the  acqui- 
sition of  good  habits,  and  not  of  information,  should  be  the  final 
test  of  a  successful  education.  Think  of  the  remarkable  gain  to 
our  civilization  if  children  were  taught  fewer  subjects,  but  were 
assisted  to  acquire  good  postural  habits,  were  taught  to  breathe 
deeply,  to  speak  without  nasal  twang,  to  eat  slowly,  not  allowed 
to  imitate  the  nervous  habits  of  parents  or  teachers,  nor  to  crystal- 
lize into  permanent  form  the  undesirable  reactions  induced  by 
fatigue  or  protracted  study  in  poorly  ventilated  rooms. 

It  is  because  of  the  difficulty  of  changing  our  habits  that 
we  find  people  trying  many  artificial  means  for  getting 
health.  Health  is  one  of  the  greatest  blessings  for  the 
foundation  for  success  and  happiness,  but  it  cannot  be 
found  at  the  drug  store,  nor  the  patent  medicine  chest. 
Neither  may  it  be  found  in  the  city  nor  the  country  alone. 
The  old  idea  of  the  superior  healthfulness  of  the  country  has 
been  overthrown  by  recent  studies,  as  the  chart  on  the 
opposite  page  well  shows.  There  is  even  more  need  for 
health  examination  and  hygiene  teaching  for  rural  schools 
than  for  city  schools. 


40 


BO 


16.4%  Defective  Teeth 

30.0% 


HEALTH  DEFECTS  IN  CITY  AND  COUNTRY  CHILDREN  COMPARED 

Compiled  from  a  study  of  the  health  examinations  of  children  in  twenty-five  Ameriean 
cities  nnd  of  rural-school  children  in  five  American  State.s.  Only  in  ixvlieulosis  (head  lice)  au.l 
in  skin  <lise;u>es  do  the  city  children  show  greater  percentage  of  defects. 
(From  \Voofter's  Teaching  in  Rural  Schools,  p.  299) 


Since  the  habits  of  hygienic  living  must  be  formed  in  the 
early  years  of  life,  the  school's  first  concern  should  be  to 
make  all  activities  of  a  healthful  character.  The  child's  in- 
terests parallel  his  awakening  instincts,  and  the  hygienic 
and  effective  method  of  teaching  gives  him  just  that  knowl- 
edge for  which  he  is  ready  at  that  time.  Going  over  material 
the  child  already  knows  is  usually  not  interesting  and  will 
cause  him  to  try  to  find  something  that  is  of  interest,  even  if 
it  is  classed  as  mischief.  Giving  tasks  for  which  he  is  not 
ready  is  equally  unhygienic.  Lincoln  once  said,  "The  sen- 
sation of  inadequacy  to  one's  task  is  a  source  of  acute  suffer- 
ing and  injury.  In  the  muscles  fatigue  only  passes  into  pain, 
but  in  the  mind  we  feel  the  pain  called  depression  of  spirits 
when  we  are  required  to  discharge  mental  function  beyond 
our  strength."  In  children  the  feelings  are  in  a  state  of  ten- 
sion and  irritability  rather  than  depression.  Anything  that 
gives  rise  to  anxiety,  apprehension,  or  aggravated  feelings 
of  joy  or  sadness  is  unwholesome.  Contentment  should  be 
the  keynote  of  the  schoolroom.  Joy  is  good  for  mountain- 
top  experience.  The  more  the  school  activities  take  on  the 
characteristics  of  directed  play  the  more  natural,  hygienic, 
and  efficient  is  the  instruction.  An  unhygienic  mental  diet 
(failing  in  interest  because  unsuited  to  the  child)  is  probably 
the  greatest  cause  of  retardation  and  elimination.  The 
greater  part  of  those  children  leaving  school  in  the  grades  do 
so  because  they  find  drudgery  rather  than  interest  in  their 
required  duties.  They  want  to  get  away  from  school  as  a 
place  in  which  they  have  failed. 

Teaching  hygiene  includes  giving  the  laws  of  health  and 
their  justification,  but  this  is  for  the  sake  of  carrying  them 
into  action.  The  failure  to  bridge  the  gap  between  what  we 
should  do  and  what  we  really  do  grows  out  of  the  fact  that 
we  have  the  wrong  habits  and  cannot  easily  change.  If  we 
wait  until  the  pupil  is  old  enough  to  study  formal  physiology 


HEALTH  EDUCATION;  MEDICAL  INSPECTION    189 

and  hygiene,  and  then  expect  the  instruction  to  work  out  in 
terms  of  changed  habits  of  living,  we  shall  be  disappointed, 
for  we  are  not  proceeding  psychologically. 

With  the  advance  of  civilization  man  has  lost  the  instincts 
that  formerly  guided  him  in  caring  for  himself,  and  this  loss 
must  be  made  good  by  training  in  intelligent  control  of  the 
life.  The  work  in  personal  hygiene  in  the  school  is  primarily 
one  of  securing  habits  of  personal  cleanliness  of  body,  teeth, 
and  clothes;  and  cleanliness  in  handling  material,  eating 
lunch,  and  in  the  care  of  the  desk  and  the  room.  Cleanli- 
ness of  person  and  environment,  together  with  clean  play 
and  vigorous  work,  will  do  much  toward  keeping  the  mind 
alert  and  the  conduct  wholesome. 

A  very  important  adjunct  to  this  is  having  the  school 
plant  sanitary  and  hygienic,  so  that  the  pupils  may  develop 
a  sense  of  what  is  right,  and  be  uncomfortable  and  dissatis- 
fied when  the  surroundings  assume  any  of  the  characteris- 
tics of  an  unhealthful  environment.  The  problem  is  to 
secure  the  practice  in  right  living  that  may  become  a  fixed 
mode  of  response. 

Incentives  used  to  get  the  child  to  come  to  school  clean 
and  to  cooperate  with  the  other  pupils  in  keeping  the  room 
orderly  will  have  to  be  those  that  appeal  to  him  because 
they  are  on  his  plane.  He  is  not  interested  in  health  —  he 
is  living  in  the  present,  on  the  physical  plane  —  and  a  pleas- 
ant-tasting tooth  paste  will  do  more  toward  securing  dental 
cleanliness  than  the  portrayal  of  the  miseries  of  toothache, 
or  the  display  of  a  chart  of  perfect  morals.  A  little  later  the 
boy  or  girl  will  do  what  is  desired  because  he  wishes  to  please, 
and  the  appeal  to  the  adolescent  is  through  his  pride  and  his 
liking  to  appear  well.  The  incentive  must  be  the  best  possi- 
ble to  get  results.  Some  of  the  most  fundamental  things  in 
education  must  be  got  indirectly,  and  this  is  particularly 
true  of  health  instruction. 


190    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

The  child  who  is  trained  to  adapt  himself  happily  to  his 
environment  is  getting  the  habit  of  cheerfulness,  the  great- 
est of  nerve  tonics.  Just  as  the  physical  condition  of  the 
organs  of  the  body  determines  the  moods  or  attitudes  of 
mind,  so  the  mental  life  stimulates  or  depresses  the  func- 
tioning of  the  cells  of  the  body.  The  "  Great  Stone  Face" 
gives  us  a  situation  with  much  of  the  real  portrayed,  for  we 
really  tend  to  become  like  what  we  think. 

Moral  hygiene  has  to  do  with  improving  conduct,  with 
making  the  willed  action  social,  rather  than  individualistic. 
Any  part  of  the  school  activity,  whether  it  be  studying  arith- 
metic, or  playing  at  recess,  is  morally  hygienic  if  the  ideas 
acquired  and  the  habits  formed  are  such  that  they  will  help 
to  decide  in  favor  of  right  conduct.  There  is  always  a  cry 
for  moral  training  in  the  school.  Because  of  the  failure  in 
the  home  and  in  the  school  of  the  past  to  give  this  training, 
we  have  had  a  setting  apart  of  one  part  of  the  general  hygiene 
for  special  study.  That  this  failure  should  stand  out  more 
clearly  in  connection  with  the  most  vital  and  far-reaching 
influences  in  the  life  of  the  young  is  inevitable.  When  par- 
ents take  up  their  responsibility  to  the  child  and  give  him  a 
growing  knowledge  of  himself,  and  the  school  ceases  to  slur 
over  certain  phases  of  the  history  of  all  life,  then  will  sex- 
hygiene  be  unnecessary.  All  children  receive  training  for 
thinking  and  judging  about  the  most  sacred  things  of  life. 
The  training  is  real  in  all  cases,  whether  it  be  intelligently 
planned  by  parents  and  teachers,  or  is  purely  the  result  of 
the  accidental  environment  of  the  child.  The  difference  is 
one  of  kind.  The  first  ten  years  of  life  is  the  impersonal  age, 
and  the  time  when  facts  of  life  are  as  natural  as  facts  in  geog- 
raphy. This  is  the  golden  opportunity  for  giving  him  the 
foundation  of  reverence  for  life,  respect  for  rights  of  others, 
self-control,  and  the  growing  knowledge  of  himself  to  which 
he  is  entitled. 


HEALTH  EDUCATION;  MEDICAL  INSPECTION    131 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  relationship  between  the  body  and  the  mind,  as  it  be- 
comes apparent  without  scientific  investigation? 

2.  Should  the  public  school  in  any  way  be  held  responsible  for  the  health 
of  our  children? 

3.  Which  costs  the  nation  most,  physical  debility  or  mental  debility? 

4.  Does  either  the  picture  representing  the  "Man  with  the  Hoe,"  or  the 
poem  with  the  same  title  describing  the  physical  endurance  of  man, 
give  the  correct  impression  of  labor  as  it  is  now  regarded  by  our  best 
citizens? 

5.  Does  the  New  Testament  give  any  examples  of  man's  body,  mind,  and 
heart  working  together  in  a  harmonious  relationship? 

6.  Judging  from  your  own  experience,  do  you  believe  that  the  number  of 
necessary  physicians  will  increase  or  diminish,  if  health  consciousness 
is  made  a  part  of  a  child's  education? 


CHAPTER  XXI 

CITIZENSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY 

To  fall  short  in  the  required  measurements  for  good  citizen- 
ship is  to  lose  just  so  much  of  life's  opportunities.  It  is  to 
fail  in  reaching  the  full  stature  of  manhood  or  womanhood. 
It  is  to  be  lacking  in  the  elements  which  insure  to  us  the 
largest  measure  of  happiness.  We  want  our  citizenship  to 
have  the  highest  regard  for  nature  and  nature's  laws,  to  have 
an  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  as  well  as  the  good.  We 
want  positive  character  expressed  in  every  individual.  We 
want  honesty  and  truth  as  typical  virtues  shown  forth  in  all 
of  our  associations  and  in  all  of  our  dealings.  We  must  have 
honor  as  the  underlying  basis  of  our  individual  acts.  And 
there  ought  to  be  a  conscious  recognition  of  the  fact  that  we 
largely  shape  our  own  destinies  through  our  choosing  as  our 
guiding  influences  the  baser  things  in  life  or  those  repre- 
senting the  nobler  virtues. 

The  responsibility  of  citizenship  ever  increases  as  the  gov- 
erning powers  are  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  people.  In  a 
democracy  all  must  share  alike  in  the  duties  of  formulating 
a  "government  of  the  people,  for  the  people  and  by  the 
people."  Individual  responsibility  does  not  end  with  the 
exercise  of  the  right  of  franchise.  This  is  important  and 
should  be  universally  exercised,  but  the  influences  which 
bring  about  the  decision  of  each  voter  who  secretly  voices 
his  own  sentiment  when  he  places  his  vote  in  the  ballot  box 
represent  conditions  which  have  affected  him  both  directly 
and  indirectly  for  months  and  possibly  for  years.  In  other 
words  his  vote  does  not  represent  an  immediate  decision, 
but  rather  represents  a  conviction  of  long  standing.  In 


CITIZENSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY  193 

national  affairs  it  may  represent  his  political  views  rather 
than  an  individual  choice.  In  such  cases  principles  of  gov- 
ernment take  precedence  over  the  personal  representation. 
This  is  necessary  because  a  knowledge  of  people  through 
acquaintanceship  is  limited,  and  because  we  know  men  at  a 
distance  better  through  the  principles  they  advocate  than 
through  their  personal  qualities. 

For  local  offices  men  are  often  supported  because  of  per- 
sonal acquaintanceship.  Voters  have  the  opportunity  of 
knowing  directly  of  the  candidate's  ideas  and  ideals.  The 
choice  is  determined  more  largely  because  of  a  knowledge  of 
the  candidate  gained  through  association  than  because  of 
party  principles.  So  every  voter  finds  himself  confronted  by 
these  two  means  affecting  his  voting  decision.  Both  plans 
are  partly  right  and  both  are  partly  wrong.  It  is  not  possi- 
ble for  national  principles  to  be  carried  on  equally  well  by 
executives  chosen  even  by  the  same  political  parties.  Indi- 
vidual qualities  of  judgment,  reason,  decision,  reliability, 
and  honesty  have  much  to  do  with  determining  an  officer's 
worth.  Most  of  us  frankly  acknowledge  that  all  men  are 
not  endowed  with  the  same  power  of  comprehension,  with 
the  same  abundance  of  foresight,  with  the  same  fundamen- 
tal conception  of  life  and  living.  We  know  full  well  that 
through  the  violation  of  nature's  laws  man's  mental  vigor 
may  be  arrested  or  retarded  just  as  his  bodily  vigor  may  be 
hindered  by  thoughtless  violation.  Then,  too,  success  or 
failure  is  often  determined  by  adaptation  or  the  lack  of  it  in 
connection  with  the  \\ork  in  charge.  Using  these  things  as 
the  basis  of  our  decision,  we  ought  not  to  cast  our  ballots  for 
any  officer  wholly  because  he  represents  a  political  principle 
in  government  nor  wholly  because  he  possesses  likable  quali- 
ties and  has  gained  popularity  through  such. 

No  democratic  nation  can  ever  recognize  one  man  as  su- 
perior to  all  others.  This  idea  has  passed  away  with  the 


194     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

divine  right  of  kings  and  with  the  autocratic  form  of  govern- 
ment. But  while  we  do  not  recognize  any  one  man  as  su- 
premely superior,  we  do  recognize  that  some  men  have  bet- 
ter qualifications  and  larger  adaptation  for  specific  work 
than  do  others.  This  fact  necessitates  our  choosing  wisely 
the  man  to  whom  we  delegate  our  power  as  a  governing 
officer,  who  in  turn  must  shape  the  policies  best  suited  to  the 
welfare  of  the  whole  people.  If  we  allow  prejudice  to  govern 
our  choice,  we  are  sure  to  reap  the  reward  of  our  own  follies. 
If  we  apply  the  highest  principles  in  making  our  decisions 
—  and  still  make  a  mistake  —  there  is  satisfaction  in  our 
honesty  of  purpose.  But  few  mistakes  will  be  made  if  every 
voter  considers  well  his  duty  and  recognizes  his  act  as  a 
sacred  privilege. 

If  we  believe  in  liberty  for  all  men,  we  also  believe  in 
equality  for  all  men.  We  believe,  too,  that  fraternity  must 
become  one  of  the  trinity  in  our  new  democracy  if  we  are  to 
make  this  a  safe  governing  process  for  an  intelligent  progres- 
sive nation.  But  each  of  these  three  terms  needs  to  be  de- 
fined in  order  to  be  understood.  Liberty  in  an  unrestricted 
sense  means  anarchy,  means  bolshevism.  In  its  better  sense 
it  means  "The  greatest  good  for  the  greatest  number"  with 
highest  respect  for  the  rights  of  the  minority.  Equality 
cannot  mean  and  does  not  mean  that  all  men  are  endowed 
by  nature  with  equal  physical  strength,  with  equal  mental 
power,  with  equal  moral  courage.  It  does  mean  that  all  men 
should  be  given  an  equal  opportunity  for  development,  for 
achievement,  for  service,  for  happiness.  Fraternity  does  not 
mean  that  we  should  recognize  in  every  man  the  same  lova- 
ble qualities  that  we  now  recognize  in  our  closest  friends  and 
companions.  It  does  mean  that  we  should  respect  each 
man's  rights;  that  the  strong  should  not  take  advantage  of 
the  weak;  that  the  rich  should  not  scorn  the  poor.  It  should 
recognize  in  each  man  potentialities  akin  to  our  own,  and 


CITIZENSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY  195 

should  desire  to  have  his  latent  powers  developed  into  the 
largest  possible  living  force.  It  bespeaks  our  personal  in- 
terest for  all  mankind  and  a  desire  for  their  best  welfare. 

It  has  been  truly  said  that  a  nation  is  characterized  by 
the  thought,  by  the  actions,  by  the  ideals  of  its  citizenship. 
Equally  well  does  this  principle  apply  to  the  home  and  the 
members  of  the  family,  to  the  community  with  its  united 
home  influences,  to  the  school  with  its  close  associations. 
Reasoning  adversely,  then,  it  may  be  said  that  a  good  school 
must  represent  a  community  of  good  homes.  Or  it  may  be 
said  with  the  same  degree  of  fairness  that  the  school  typifies 
in  a  large  measure  the  ideals  found  in  the  home  life  and 
therefore  stands  as  a  criterion  of  what  our  nation  ought  to 
be.  Good  homes  and  good  schools  then  are  both  fundamen- 
tally necessary  to  a  good  nation,  and  money  rightly  expended 
on  either  one  ought  to  bring  the  largest  returns  upon  the  in- 
vestment. Every  child  should  learn  to  love  his  home  so  well, 
and  to  respect  his  parents  to  such  a  degree  that  the  cardinal 
principles  of  his  life  be  formed  about  these  early  associations. 
The  school  home,  too,  should  stamp  in  his  life  so  much  of  good 
that  his  memory  through  the  years  will  be  surcharged  with 
the  vital  interest  of  lasting  value  which  came  to  him  during 
this  period  of  his  life. 

Through  these  agencies  the  guiding  principles  of  our  citi- 
zenship are  formed,  but  this  is  a  small  inner  circle,  and  the 
youth  of  our  country  must  quickly  step  outside  of  the  influ- 
ences of  these  two  organizations.  The  community  adds  its 
might,  and  within  it  there  may  be  many  influences  for  good. 
The  church  is  probably  the  largest  contributing  factor  of  the 
community  because  it  is  organized  with  a  very  definite  pur- 
pose in  mind.  Secret  societies  and  lodges,  too,  are  impor- 
tant because  they  offer  social  opportunities  as  well  as  a 
means  of  close  cooperation.  Public  business  of  every  kind 
has  a  bearing  upon  the  complete  environment,  and  may  con- 


196    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

tribute  in  a  valuable  way  to  the  complete  setting  of  our  com- 
munity's influences  and  interests.  From  all  these  sources 
then  comes  the  complete  education  which  must  function  in 
the  life  of  every  individual. 

The  fundamental  basis  of  government  in  a  democracy  de- 
pends upon  individual  understanding  and  individual  think- 
ing. But  we  usually  think  of  it  as  a  great  association  of  peo- 
ples, who  in  the  aggregate  initiate  policies  and  determine  all 
plans  of  procedure.  We  emphasize  majority  rule  because 
in  this  we  see  an  opportunity  for  every  man  to  express  his 
own  personal  wishes.  This  theory  is  correct  in  principle,  but 
in  practice  it  has  not  always  given  the  results  expected. 
The  fault  lies  in  the  fact  that  one  man  often  does  the  think- 
ing for  a  group  and  that  public  sentiment  is  often  an  out- 
growth of  minority  thinking.  If  we  could  always  be  sure  of 
the  unqualified  integrity  of  our  leadership,  and  could  always 
have  the  assurance  that  this  leadership  would  think  and  act 
in  the  interests  of  the  whole  people  and  not  be  swayed  by 
selfish  interests,  then  and  only  then  would  it  be  safe  for  the 
few  to  do  the  thinking  for  the  many.  But  even  if  vthis  could 
be  assured  it  would  not  be  advisable  because  a  few  leaders 
cannot  make  a  great  nation. 

Plutocracy  as  well  as  autocracy  has  failed  to  satisfy  the 
needs  of  a  progressive  world.  Democracy  as  it  exists  is  in- 
finitely better  than  either  of  the  old  forms  of  government; 
but  it  has  not  yet  realized  its  greatest  potentialities  because 
we  still  cling  to  some  of  the  old  traditions,  and  because  we 
have  not  yet  reached  the  place  where  individual  thinking 
and  individual  decisions  can  be  depended  upon. 

The  important  question,  then,  is  how  can  we  secure  ma- 
jority rule  based  upon  majority  thinking  and  understanding. 
For  by  so  doing  we  shall  be  able  to  eliminate  individual 
selfish  motives.  By  this  it  should  not  be  inferred  that  men 
ought  not  to  cooperate,  nor  that  they  ought  not  to  discuss 


CITIZENSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY  197 

matters  fully  and  freely  together  for  the  purpose  of  arriving 
at  a  conclusion.  These  are  the  very  things  that  we  desire  to 
have  done  in  order  that  there  be  better  understanding  and 
greater  cooperation.  What  we  do  want,  however,  is  that 
each  man  shall  investigate  earnestly  and  honestly  for  him- 
self, and  that  his  final  decision  be  based  upon  intelligent  un- 
derstanding and  honesty  of  purpose  representing  the  innate 
qualities  lying  within  himself.  In  other  words,  we  cannot 
have  any  considerable  number  of  men  of  the  "rubber  stamp " 
type  and  still  boast  of  our  majority  rule.  Neither  can  we 
have  men  swayed  by  personal  prejudices  and  selfish  interest, 
dominate  by  means  of  position  or  of  wealth  the  individual 
responsibilities  incumbent  upon  each  man  of  the  whole  Na- 
tion. All  men's  decisions  are  equal  when  measured  by  the 
power  of  their  individual  ballots.  But  the  value  of  the  final 
decision  arrived  at  by  the  aggregate  count  of  all  the  votes 
depends  upon  how  intelligently  and  unselfishly  each  indi- 
vidual has  considered  the  matter. 

Should  we  deny  the  possibility  that  all  men  of  the  Nation 
can  be  made  personally  responsible,  then  we  have  over- 
thrown the  governmental  principles  of  a  real  democracy.  If 
we  agree  that  this  is  necessary  and  yet  acknowledge  the  fact 
that  it  has  not  been  fully  accomplished,  we  are  compelled  to 
make  this  achievement  a  necessity  in  the  realization  of  our 
vision  which  would  "make  the  world  safe  for  democracy." 
Now  that  the  last  autocratic  ruler  has  been  forced  to  yield 
to  the  rights  of  the  people,  and  that  the  intelligent  nations 
of  the  earth  have  declared  their  implicit  faith  in  democratic 
rule,  we  ought  conscientiously  to  look  forward  to  that 
greater  democracy  which  must  first  abound  in  the  minds  and 
in  the  hearts  of  all  of  the  people.  For,  indeed,  democracy 
must  first  become  a  personal  matter  in  order  to  have  it  work 
out  through  majority  governmental  control. 

It  has  been  said  before  that  literally  men  cannot  be  made 


198     HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

altogether  equal,  but  this  does  not  bar  the  necessity  of  devel- 
oping all  men  to  their  individual  highest  degree,  thus  bring- 
ing them  just  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  commonly  accepted 
equality  basis.  We  may  not  be  able  to  change  nature's 
laws,  but  we  can  change  the  conditions  under  which  those 
laws  operate,  and  in  a  manner  to  insure  better  results.  This 
cannot  be  overlooked  when  we  consider  the  necessity  of 
making  such  individual  units  in  our  plan  just  as  strong  as 
possible.  Some  one  has  said  that  the  chain  is  no  stronger 
than  its  weakest  link,  and  we  can  apply  this  principle  profit- 
ably to  the  links  of  the  chain  in  our  governmental  control. 
Kipling  has  said  in  his  The  Jungle  Book  that  the  wolf  is  no 
stronger  than  the  pack,  and  the  pack  is  no  stronger  than  the 
wolf.  This  is  simply  another  way  of  making  an  analogy 
which  governs  the  same  principle,  and  it  too  may  be  applied 
to  our  proposition  of  individual  development  and  its  effect 
upon  collective  decision.  If  we  are  agreed  upon  the  neces- 
sity for  individual  development,  it  then  becomes  necessary 
to  turn  to  the  means  which  we  have  at  hand  for  bringing  this 
about.  It  has  been  truly  said  that  men  are  developed 
through  education  as  metals  are  refined  by  means  of  the 
blast  furnace;  but,  since  much  depends  upon  the  proper  heat 
of  the  blast  furnace,  so  also  does  much  depend  upon  the  kind 
of  education.  So  it  is  upon  the  kind  of  education  that  the 
emphasis  should  be  placed.  And  in  this  connection  it  should 
be  remembered  that  book  knowledge  secured  in  school  is  one 
of  the  fundamental  bases  of  education,  but  it  does  not  rep- 
resent the  broad  education  which  must  be  considered  in 
this  connection.  In  its  largest  sense  this  "broad  educa- 
tion" must  have  its  beginning  in  infancy  and  ever  increase 
through  the  years,  gathering  from  every  source  the  knowl- 
edge of  greatest  worth  and  applying  it  unselfishly  to  the 
principles  of  noble  living. 

The  ideal  of  our  democratic  education  was  recently  well 


CITIZENSHIP  IN  A  DEMOCRACY  199 

expressed  in  a  resolution  adopted  by  our  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  which  declared  that : 

Education  is  the  means  through  which  democracy  establishes 
social  justice.  In  a  democracy  where  majorities  both  think  and 
rule,  education,  however  fostered  and  guided  by  leaders,  must  be 
so  directed  as  to  meet  the  needs  of  all.  The  fact  that  we  are 
rapidly  approaching  the  time  when  the  masses  of  the  people  will 
assume  large  control  of  the  affairs  of  government  emphasizes  anew 
the  responsibility  of  the  public  schools  in  a  democracy.  The  pro- 
gram of  education  to  meet  new  and  increased  demands  must  be 
comprehensive  enough  to  promote  the  physical  well-being  of  all 
citizens,  to  eliminate  illiteracy,  to  teach  the  English  language  as 
the  common  means  of  communication,  to  fit  all  individuals  for 
vocational  efficiency  and  for  the  wise  use  of  leisure,  to  cultivate 
democratic  habits  of  social  relationship,  to  develop  in  all  a  high 
sense  of  the  privileges  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship,  and  to 
equalize  and  enrich  educational  opportunity  throughout  the 
Nation. 

When  the  masses  are  educated  in  accordance  with  this  program 
there  will  be  no  danger  to  democracy  from  them  and  less  danger 
from  the  idle  rich  and  idle  wise.  The  ideal  of  democracy  is  for  the 
masses  to  work  so  well  and  think  so  clearly  that  their  working 
together  and  thinking  together  will  form  effective  factors  in  orderly 
progress. 

In  the  working-out  of  such  a  system  of  American  public 
education  the  rural  and  village  schools  of  our  land  play  a 
very  important  part,  and  the  rural  and  village  school  trus- 
tees occupy  positions  of  importance  if  they  intelligently 
and  efficiently  perform  their  duties. 

SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  State  as  briefly  as  possible  the  conception  you  have  as  to  the  meaning 
of  citizenship  as  applied  to  free  peoples  under  a  democratic  form  of 
government. 

2.  What  different  forms  of  government  have  the  peoples  of  the  world 
tried  since  the  beginning  of  our  historic  record? 

3.  What  principles  are  necessary  to  maintain  if  the  people  are  to  have 


200    HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

equal  rights  in  determining  the  policies  of  life,  liberty,  and  the  pro- 
tection of  property? 

4.  To  what  extent  has  the  natural  laws  governing  mankind's  existence 
endowed  them  all  equally? 

5.  Enumerate  all  the  organizations  that  you  know  of  which  promote  the 
best  things  for  civilization;  and  also  make  a  parallel  list  of  those  which 
tend  to  lower  our  standards  of  citizenship  or  which  create  a  distrust 
among  free  peoples. 

6.  Distinguish  between  equality  before  the  law  under  a  democratic  form 
of  government,  and  individual  inequality.  « 


APPENDICES 

1.  LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  FURTHER  READING 

AYERS,  MAY,  WILLIAMS,  J.  F.,  and  WOOD,  T.  D.  Healthful  Schools. 
292  pp.,  illustrated,  $1.50.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  New 
York,  and  Chicago,  1918. 

A  simple  and  helpful  presentation  of  the  essentials  as  to  school 
building  construction,  and  the  provision  of  a  healthful  environment 
for  school  children. 

CARNEY,  MABEL.     Country  Life  and  the  Country  School.    405  pp., 
illustrated,  $1.50.     Row  Peterson  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1913. 
A  very  practical  treatise  on  the  rural-school  problem. 

CUBBERLEY,  ELLWOOD  P.  Rural  Life  and  Education.  367  pp., 
illustrated,  $1.60.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  New  York, 
and  Chicago,  1914. 

A  study  of  the  rural-school  problem  as  a  phase  of  the  rural-life 
problem.  The  first  part  of  the  book  presents  the  new  rural-life  prob- 
lem which  has  developed  within  recent  years,  and  the  second  part 
shows  how  this  can  be  solved  by  so  reshaping  the  rural  school  as  to 
make  it  minister  more  fully  than  it  now  does  to  country  life  needs. 

DRESSLAR,  F.  B.  Rural  Schoolhouses  and  Grounds.  162  pp., 
illustrated.  Bulletin  No.  12,  1914,  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education.  For  sale  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C.,  50  cents.  May 
also  be  obtained  from  Congressmen  or  Senators  by  writing. 

A  well-written  and  illustrated  book,  describing  the  best  in  rural- 
school  buildings,  equipment,  and  grounds.  Contains  44  plates,  as 
well  as  many  drawings. 

WOOFTER,  THOS.  J.  Teaching  in  Rural  Schools.  327  pp.,  illus- 
trated, $1.40.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  New  York,  and 
Chicago,  1917. 

A  very  useful  volume  on  the  organization  and  management  of  a 
rural  school,  with  simple  statements  as  to  the  essential  principles 
involved  in  teaching  each  of  the  common  school  subjects. 

All  of  the  above  books  should  be  found  in  every  rural-school 
library,  for  the  use  of  teacher  and  trustees  alike. 


202  APPENDICES 

2.  SCORE  CARD  TO  BE  USED  IN  MEASURING 
SCHOOL  SUCCESS 

This  Score  Card  has  been  used  by  many  County  Superintendents 
in  Washington  in  connection  with  their  school  visitation,  and  has 
proved  very  helpful  to  such  school  officers.  It  contains  many  sug- 
gestions that  may  prove  useful  to  rural-school  trustees  in  estimating 
the  efficiency  of  their  school. 

I.  Schoolroom  appearance 

(a)  Attractive Disorderly 

(b)  Artistic Repulsive 

(c)  Comfortable Uncomfortable 

(d)  Well  lighted Poorly  lighted 

(e)  Cleanly Uncleanly 


II.  Personality  of  teacher 

1.  General  Appearance 

(a)  Vigorous Weak 

(b)  Well  poised Nervous 

(c)  Neat Sloven 

(d)  At  ease Embarrassed. 

2.  Voice 

(a)  Pleasing Harsh 

(b)  Clear Indistinct.  .  . 

(c)  Low High 


III.  Spirit  of  schoolroom 

Does  the  teacher  appear  to 

(a)  Stimulate Suppress 

(b)  Be  courteous Be  rude 

(c)  Encourage Nag 

(d)  Cooperate Antagonize 

(e)  Be  firm Be  weak 

(f)  Be  sympathetic Be  harsh 

(g)  Be  tactful Be  blundering. . . 

(h)  Be  strict Be  lax 

(i)  Be  enthusiastic Be  diffident .... 

(j)  Be  tempered Be  irritable 

(k)  Be  quick  to  react Be  slow  to  react. 


APPENDICES  203 


(1)  Be  reasonable Be  unreasonable. 

(m)  Be  quiet Be  noisy 

(n)  Be  tolerant Be  intolerant.  .  . 

(o)  Be  systematic Be  disorderly.  .  . 

(p)  Be  dignified Be  undignified .  . 

(q)  Be  resourceful Be  dependent . . . 


IV.  The  recitation 

1.  To  what  extent  are  pupils  in  class 

(a)  Responsive Passive  . . . . 

(b)  Interested Indifferent  . 

(c)  Energetic Lazy 

(d)  Independent Dependent 

2.  To  what  extent  are  pupils  responsive 

(a)  Fluent  topical  recitations 

(bl  Word  or  phrase  responses 

(c)  Single  sentence  responses 

(d)  Incoherent  responses 

(e)  Failing  to  answer 

3.  Pupils  in  room  not  reciting 

(a)  Industrious Indolent . . . 

(b)  Orderly Disorderly  . 


3.  GENERAL  RATING-SHEET  FOR  STANDARD 
RURAL  SCHOOLS 

This  General  Rating-Sheet  has  been  used  quite  effectively  as  a 
suggestive  means,  and  has  proved  of  value  as  a  stimulus  to  activity 
on  the  part  of  many  rural  communities. 

I.  School  grounds 

(a)  Entire  premises  must  be  sanitary  and  in  good  condition. 

(b)  Schoolhouse  and  all  auxiliary  buildings  must  be  in  good 
condition  and  well  painted. 

(c)  There  must  be  a  good  flagpole.      Preferably  on  the 
grounds  with  flag  flying.  (Government  regulations.) 

(d)  Trees  and  shrubbery  must  be  well  pruned  and  cultivated. 

(e)  Walks  must  be  provided  when  necessary. 

(f)  Premises  must  be  fenced  where  stock  are  permitted  to 
run  at  large. 

(g)  For  suggestions  see  chapters  VI  and  VII  and  VHI. 


204  APPENDICES 

II.  School  buildings 

(a)  Rooms  used  for  instruction  purposes  must  be  properly 
lighted,  heated,  and    ventilated.      (See   chapters   VII 
and  VIII.) 

(b)  The   interior   should   present   a   pleasing   and  artistic 
appearance. 

(c)  There  must  be  good  window-shades  well  adjusted  to  light. 

(d)  Window-boards  for  ventilation  must  be  provided  unless 
some  other  approved  method  is  used. 

(e)  Sufficient    blackboard    must    be    provided    with    good 
erasers. 

HI.  Necessary  equipment 

(See  chapters  VIII  and  IX.) 

(a)  Good  desk  and  chair  for  teacher. 

(b)  Single  desks  for  pupils.     Desks  should  be  properly  ad- 
justed and  free  from  marks. 

(c)  Stove,  with  jacket,  properly  situated  or  approved  system 
of  heating. 

(d)  A  large  clock  placed  at  the  front  of  the  room. 

(e)  Suitable  pictures  properly  framed  and  hung. 

(f)  Maps,   globes,   and  charts  approved  by  the  County 
Superintendent. 

IV.  Desirable  equipment 

(a)  A  good  musical  instrument  —  piano  or  organ  preferred. 

(b)  Small  Victrola  with  well-chosen  records. 

(c)  An  adaptable  library  carefully  selected  from  books  ap- 
proved by  reliable  authority. 

(d)  Well-selected  bulletins  adapted  to  the  community  taken 
from  the  state  and  national  lists. 

(e)  Dust-proof  cases  for  books  and  bulletins  with  loaning 
record  giving  specified  rules. 

V.  Sanitation 

(a)  Proper  drainage  for  all  buildings. 

(b)  Pure  drinking-water,  either  fountain  or  covered  tank  and 
individual  drinking-cups. 

(c)  Sufficient  lavatory  facilities,  with  family  or  individual 
towels  provided. 


APPENDICES  205 

(d)  Good  brooms  and  brushes  for  cleaning  floors  and  win- 
dows. 

(e)  Dusteen,  Dustglow,  or  some  approved  dust-allaying  ma- 
terial, provided  for  sweeping. 

(f)  An  eraser  cleaner  for  blackboard  erasers. 

(g)  Separate  toilets  for  girls  and  boys.     Toilets  should  be 
sanitary  and  free  from  marks. 

(h)  Dust  cloths  and  mops  for  special  cleaning. 

VI.  Outbuildings 

(a)  A  teacher's  cottage  should  be  provided  whenever  it  is 
difficult  to  secure  good  board  and  living  in  a  private 
home. 

(b)  A  gymnasium  or  playroom  should  be  provided  when 
weather  conditions  in  winter  make  it  desirable. 

(c)  A  neat  well-built  shed  should  be  provided  for  horses  or 
for  automobile  if  pupils  find  it  necessary  to  provide 
conveyance  to  school. 

(d)  A  fuel  room  should  be  provided  where  fuel  can  be  kept 
dry  and  ought  to  be  built  in  connection  with  the  main 
building,  or  means  provided  in  the  basement. 

(e)  If  outside  toilets  are  necessary,  they  should  be  well 
built,  placed  on  different  portions  of  the  grounds,  and 
should  each  be  provided  with  a  shield. 

VH.  Teacher 

(a)  The  teacher  must  have  had  special  training  in  a  teach- 
ers' institution,  or  must  have  had  at  least  two  years  of 
experience  and  hold  a  First-Grade  Certificate. 

(b)  Must  take  interest  in  community  activities  as  well  as 
school  work. 

(c)  Must  be  neat  in  attire  and  orderly  in  habits. 

(d)  Must  maintain  good  order  in  the  schoolroom  at  all 
times. 

(e)  Must  provide  some  means  for  organization  of  and  su- 
pervision of  playground. 

(f)  Must  have  well-arranged  program  posted  in  the  room 
so  that  it  can  be  easily  read  by  pupils. 

(g)  Daily  register  must  be  kept  neat,  with  all  records  ac- 
curately made. 


206  APPENDICES 

VIII.  Pupils 

(a)  Pupils  must  show  an  interest  in  the  regular  work  of 
the  school. 

(b)  Must  take  part  in  special  exercises  when  requested. 

(c)  Attendance  must  average  at  least  ninety  per  cent  for 
each  term. 

(d)  Tardiness  must  not  exceed  two  per  cent  for  the  term. 

IX.  Length  of  school  year 

(a)  School  must  be  kept  at  least  eight  months  during  the 
year. 

(b)  Means  must  be  provided  to  keep  buildings  and  grounds 
in  wholesome  condition  during  months  school  is  not  in 
session. 

X.  Cooperation  of  patrons 

(a)  School  patrons  must  show  their  interest  in  the  regular 
school  year. 

(b)  They  must  take  part  in  the  community  activities  or- 
ganized under  the  school's  direction. 

(c)  They  must  be  willing  to  provide  the  necessities  to  make 
the  school  successful  and  progressive. 

(d)  They  must  encourage  wholesome  leadership  both  in 
school  and  out. 

(e)  They  must  be  boosters  always. 


APPENDICES  207 

4.  STANDARD  RATING-SHEET  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

This  Standard  Rating-Sheet  has  been  used  in  checking  up  and 
evaluating  all  the  rural  schools  in  a  number  of  counties,  and  then 
by  comparative  study  of  the  results  determining  lines  of  necessary 
action.  Approved  copies  may  be  given  to  and  posted  in  each 
school,  so  that  each  may  see  the  points  of  strength  and  weakness. 

Name  of  School 

District  Number 

Name  of  Teacher 

Date  of  Visitation 

Name  of  individual  giving  rating 


I.  Grounds 

Maximum         Points 
points  allowed 

(a)  Good  sanitation  and  drainage 2  

(b)  Trees  and  shrubbery  well  kept 2  

(c)  Good  flagpole  with  flag  flying 2  

(d)  Suitable  playground  apparatus 2  

(e)  Sufficient  ground  for  all  play  activities  _2_  

10 

II.  Buildings 

(a)  All  buildings  well  painted  and  in  good 

repair 5  

(b)  Heat,  light,  and  ventilation  standard. 

(See  chapter  VII) 5  

(c)  Inside  toilets  and  outside  toilets  sani- 
tary, well  kept,  free  from  marks ....  3  

(d)  Adjustable  shades  for  all  windows. .  .  1  

(e)  Interior  attractive  and  artistic 2  

(f)  Good      janitor      service      (buildings 

cleanly) . . . .' _2 

18 

HI.  Equipment 

(a)  Single  desks  of  proper  size,  one  fourth 

number  adjustable 4  

(b)  Teacher's  good  desk  and  chair 2  


208  APPENDICES 

Maximum        Points 
points  allowed 

(c)  Well-kept  blackboard  having  at  least 

twenty  linear  feet 2  

(d)  Three  large  well-framed  pictures  of 

approved  school  type 3  

(e)  Library  chosen  from  approved  book 

lists 2  

(f)  Suitable   maps,   gloves,   charts,   pro- 
vided for  the  primary  as  well  as  the 

upper  grades 2  

(g)  Water    fountain    or    covered  water- 
cooler  having  spigot,   and  provided 

with  individual  drinking-cups 2  

(h)  Lavatory  facilities    with    family    or 

individual  towels 2  

(i)  Musical  instrument  and  provision  for 

singing 2  

(j)  Large  wall  clock 1  

22 
IV.  The  school 

(a)  Each  teacher  with  special  training  for 

her  work 4  

(b)  Not  more  than  thirty  pupils  to  the 

teacher 2  

(c)  Teacher  retained  for  more  than  one 

year  of  service 2  

(d)  Daily  program  posted  in  room  so  it 

can  be  read  by  pupils  from  seats ....     2  

(e)  Teacher's  manual  and  course  of  study 

on  desk 1  

(f )  School  visited  by  all  of  the  directors .  .     3  

(g)  Homes   of   neighborhood   visited   by 

teacher 4  , 

(h)  Cooperation  of  teachers  and  pupils. .     2  

20 
V.  Community  activities 

(a)  Agricultural  or  industrial  club  work 
bringing  the  home  and  school  into 
cooperation 4  


APPENDICES  209 

Maximum         Points 
points  allowed 

(b)  Local   school   exhibit   resulting   from 

club  work 4  

(c)  Community  meeting  held   in  cooper- 
ation with  the  school 3  

(d)  Hot  lunch  for  the  school  planned  in 
cooperation  with  the  mothers  of  the 

community 3  

(e)  Health  education  in  cooperation  with 

the  homes 4  

Ts 

VI.  Additional  points  which  ought  to  be  required 

Name  each  point  definitely  and  separately    H  

Total.  .  .    100 


5.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COUNTY  TRUSTEES'  MEETINGS 
OR  FOR  COMMUNITY  MEETINGS 

This  list  of  topics  has  been  used  extensively  in  the  work  of  the 
Cheney  State  Normal  School  with  the  rural  schools  of  Washington 
and  Idaho,  and  seems  to  contain  practical  and  helpful  suggestions. 

1.  How  can  the  County  Physician  assist  the  rural  communities 
in  their  health  problems? 

2.  Is  it  important  to  insist  upon  Agricultural  and  Industrial 
work  in  all  rural  communities? 

3.  How  can  school  grounds  be  planted  in  a  manner  to  make 
them  artistic  and  at  the  same  time  usable? 

4.  Are  school  revenues,  as  apportioned,  equable  for  all  classes 
of  districts? 

5.  How  can  an  old  school  building  be  remodeled  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  heat,  light,  and  ventilation.' 

6.  Is  it  an  economic  advantage  to  furnish  free  textbooks  to  all 
the  children  of  the  district? 

7.  When  the  school  raises  funds  for  entertainment,  what  may  be 
considered  legitimate  uses  for  which  money  may  be  expended? 

8.  What  arc  the  advantages  of  compulsory  attendance,  and  how 
can  this  best  be  enforced? 


210  APPENDICES 

9.  What  number  of  months  can  the  school  be  conducted  with 
profit  to  the  children  and  community  at  large? 

10.  How   can   wholesome  and   beneficial   community   pride   be 
aroused? 

11.  How  can  effective  team  work  be  organized? 

12.  What  stimuli  may  be  gained  through  local  and  county  ex- 
hibit work? 

13.  Is  the  present  plan  of  taxing  public  service  corporations 
equable  to  all  districts? 

14.  What  is  the  best  plan  for  making  an  annual  school  budget? 

15.  Is  it  important  to  have  one  hundred  per  cent  of  accuracy  in 
determining  the  school  census? 

16.  What  is  the  best  means  of  securing  a  special  trained  teacher 
for  the  school? 

17.  When  a  Board  Member  is  forced  to  work  for  a  district,  how 
compensated? 

18.  What  is  the  best  plan  for  supplying  the  necessities  for  the 
school  so  that  no  delay  will  be  encountered? 

19.  Is  it  legitimate  to  use  fuel,  purchased  by  the  district,  for 
general  gatherings  aside  from  school  work? 

20.  What  is  the  best  plan  for  installing  a  modern  water  system 
on  the  school  grounds? 

21.  Are  the  present  contracts  equally  binding  to  district  and 
teacher? 

22.  What  improvements  can  be  made  to  insure  better  health 
conditions  in  school? 

23.  What  use  is  made  of  all  reports  made  by  teachers  and  school 
trustees  in  the  annual  report  of  county  and  state  superin- 
tendents? 

24.  Is  there  any  way  to  estimate  the  real  value  of  education  to  a 
community? 


INDEX 


Adaptation,  150. 
Administration;  the  unit  of,  14. 
Administration    versus    supervision, 

127. 

Advantages  of  Arbor  Day,  48. 
Advantages     of     securing     trained 

teachers,  52. 

Aim  of  manual-arts  teaching,  162. 
Alliance  of  home  and  school,  119. 
Anaemia  common  among  children, 

181. 

Annual  budget  system,  40. 
Apparatus,  school,  80,  81. 
Application  of  knowledge,  159. 
Attractive  school  grounds,  45. 

Ballot-box  means  of  expression,  192. 

Bids  and  contracts,  105. 

Birthright  of  child,  3. 

Bonds  necessary  to  financing,  39. 

Budget  system,  40. 

Building  details,  63. 

Buildings,  used  for  other  purposes, 
30;  and  equipment,  how  to  pro- 
vide them,  38. 

Calendar  of  official  events,  103. 
Care  of  defective  youth,  107. 
Carriers  of  disease,  183. 
Change  in  requirements,  4. 
Changes  in  school  plans  and  policies, 

148. 

Child's  social  needs,  151. 
Child  welfare,  176. 
Choosing  or  improving  school  sites, 

43. 

Church,  imported  agency,  152. 
Citizenship,  intelligent,  1. 
Civic  responsibilities,  2. 


Color  scheme,  66. 

Combining  associated  subjects,  116. 

Combining  courses  for  grade,  156. 

Common  mistakes  in  organizing 
school  boards,  25. 

Community  topics,  209. 

Consolidation  of  rural  schools,  134. 

Constructive  criticism,  154. 

Coordination  of  study  and  work, 
149. 

Contracts,  105. 

County,  unit  of  school  administra- 
tion, 14. 

Criticism,  159. 

Curriculum  well  balanced,  158. 

Daily  program,  109-17. 
Defective  youth,  107. 
Defects  cause  retardation,  182. 
Developing  aesthetic  tastes,  85. 
District  units,  15. 
Drinking-fountains,  72. 

Early  education  defined,  154. 

Eating,  effects  of  hurried,  170. 

Education,  evidence  of  worth  of,  1; 
faith  in,  2;  explained,  4;  evolution 
of,  134;  must  include,  153;  and  the 
growth  of  nations,  159. 

Efficiency,  meaning  of,  174. 

Facts,  disclosed  in  school  election 
records,  21 ;  and  interest  combined, 
150. 

Family  history,  182. 

Financing  of  schools,  35. 

Five  primary  defects  of  children, 
180. 

Fountain  for  drinking-water,  72. 


212 


INDEX 


Free  government,  1. 

Furniture,  harmonious  effect,  85. 

Good  organization,  26. 
Government    inventory    of   educa- 
tion, 1. 
Gymnasium  for  school,  55. 

Habits  valuable,  186. 

Health  and  work,  176. 

Health  education,  176. 

Health  supervision  in  school,  176. 

Home,  responsibilities  of,  16. 

Home  study  and  health,  178. 

Hygiene  made  practical,  184. 

Joint  responsibilities  of  home  and 
school,  76. 

Keeping  public  records,  42. 
Keeping  the  register,  107. 
Keynote  of  manual  training,  164. 
Knowledge  applied,  152. 

Lavatories,  72. 
Lawful  contracts,  107. 
Life-story  of  school  pictures,  90. 
Limitations  of  one-room  school,  138. 
Local  district  tax,  37. 
Local  welfare  versus  national  inter- 
est, 130. 
Lunch-basket  a  necessity,  169. 

Manual  arts,  163. 

Manual  training,  161. 

Maximum  efficiency,  103. 

Means  for  transporting  pupils,  143. 

Means  of  political  expression,  18. 

Men  characterized,  193. 

Minimum  time,  103. 

Mistakes  of  board  members,  25. 

Moral  hygiene,  190. 

Mothers'  appreciation,  170. 

Nation,  responsibility  of,   11;  how 
characterized,  195. 


National  responsibility,  11. 
National  use  of  school,  1. 
Need  for  larger  subsidies,  7. 
Need  for  trustees'  policy,  30. 
Normal  school  a  training  center,  95. 

Official  forms,  108. 
Official  regulations,  105. 
One-room  school,  limitations  of,  138. 
Opening  of  school,  106. 
Opportunity,  noon  lunch,  171. 
Organization,  26. 

Parent-teacher  movement,  121. 
Personal  association,  120. 
Pictures  for  decoration,  89. 
Plan  for  hot  lunch,  169. 
Plans,  suggestive,  131. 
Poor  food,  181. 
Pottery,  its  use,  92. 
Program  for  school,  110. 
Program  of  education,  199. 
Program  of  health  work,  177. 
Public  records,  42. 
Pure  air  ventilation,  67. 

Reception  of  teachers,  101. 
Recommendation  for  school,  125. 
Records,  accuracy  important,  42. 
Redirected  education,  147. 
Remedies  suggested,  23. 
Representative  government,  18. 
Requirements  changed,  4. 
Resources  and  finances,  35. 
Results  from  study,  161. 
Retardation,  182. 
Roads,  an  advantage,  131. 

School,  its  beginning,  3;  how  admin- 
istered, 8;  inspection  of,  31. 
School  comforts,  76. 
School  decorations,  influence  of,  86. 
School  furnishings,  76. 
School  grounds,  45. 
School  officers,  25. 


INDEX 


213 


School  opening,  106. 
Schoolroom  decorations,  85. 
School  site,  improving,  43;  size  of, 

46. 

School  spirit,  33. 
Score  card,  202. 
Seat  work,  direction  of,  117. 
Sense-training,  177. 
Social  needs  of  child,  151. 
Standard  rating  sheet,  207. 
Standardization,  100. 
State  Board,  13. 
State  school  officer,  13. 
Study  and  work,  149. 
Subjects  alternating,  116. 
Subsidies,  7. 
Sunshine  and  sleep,  181. 
Support  of  education,  131. 
Surroundings  of  school,  influence  of, 

47,  48. 

Tax,  local,  37. 

Toacherage  or  school  cottage,  51. 

Teachers,  influence  of,  94;  Low  to 


secure    good,   97;   social   leaders, 

120. 

Toilets,  70. 

Transporting  pupils,  143. 
Trustees'  policy,  30. 
Type  of  work,  156. 

Units  subdivided,  14-15. 
Use  of  buildings,  30. 
Usefulness,  how  determined,  164. 

Voting,  193. 

Voucher  plan  of  payment,  41. 

Water-pressure  system,  72. 
Welfare  of  child,  176. 
Work  and  study,  149. 
Work  for  girls,  166. 
Work  of  board,  25. 
Work  organized,  165. 
Worth  of  education,  1. 

Year,  length  of,  111. 
Yearly  calendar,  103. 
Youth,  defective,  107. 


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General  Educational  Theory 

EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION. 
By  F.  N.  FREEMAN,  University  of  Chicago. 

HOW  CHILDREN  LEARN. 

By  F.  N.  FREEMAN. 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  COMMON  BRANCHES. 

By  F.  N.  FREEMAN. 

DISCIPLINE  AS  A  SCHOOL  PROBLEM. 
By  A.  C.  PERKY,  JR. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY. 
By  VV.  R.  SMITH,  Kansas  State  Normal  School. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  CHILD  PSYCHOLOGY. 

By  C.  W.  WADDLE,  Ph.D.,  Los  Angeles  State  Normal  School. 

History  of  Education 

A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE  AND  PROGRESS. 

By  E.  P.  CUEBERLEY,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

A  BOOK  OF  READINGS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

By  E.  P.  CUBBBRLKY. 

PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  E.  P.  CUBBERLEY. 

THE   EVOLUTION  OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL  IDEAL. 
By  MABEL  I.  EMERSON. 

Administration  and  Supervision  of  Schools 

HEALTHFUL    SCHOOLS:    HOW   TO    BUILD,   EQUIP,  AND   MAIN- 
TAIN  THEM. 

By  MAY  AYRES,  J.  F.  WILLIAMS,  M.D.,  University  of  Cincinnati,  and   T.  D. 
WOOD,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION. 
By  E.  P.  CUBBERLEY. 

RURAL  LIFE  AND   EDUCATION. 

By  E.  P.  CUBBEKLKY. 

HEALTH  WORK  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 
By  E.  B.  HOAG,  M.D.,  and  L.  M.  TERMAN,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING. 
By  W.  S.  MONROE,  University  of  Illinois. 

19263 


EDUCATIONAL  TESTS  AND  MEASUREMENTS. 

By  W.  S.  MONROE,  J.  C.  DEVoss,  Kansas  State  Normal  School;  and  I".  J 
KELLY,  University  of  Kansas. 

THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION. 
By  H.  W.  NUTT,  University  of  Kansas. 

STATISTICAL  METHODS  APPLIED  TO  EDUCATION. 

By  H.  O.  RUGG,  University  of  Chicago. 

CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION  AND  CONTROL. 

By  J.  B.  SEARS,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

A  HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS. 

By  N.  D.  SHOWALTER,  Washington  State  Normal  School. 

THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  SCHOOL  CHILD. 
By  L.  M.  TERMAN. 

THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  INTELLIGENCE. 
By  L.  M.  TERMAN. 

Test  Material  for  the  Measurement  of  Intelligence.     Record  Booklets  for  the 
Measurement  of  Intelligence. 

THE  INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN. 
By  L.  M.  TERMAN. 

Methods  of  Teaching 

TEACHING  LITERATURE  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES  AND  HIGH 
SCHOOL. 

By  EMMA  M.  BOLENIUS. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  FUNDAMENTAL  SUBJECTS. 
By  C.  N.  KENDALL  and  G.  A.  MIRICK. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 
By  C.  N.  KENDALL  and  G.  A.  MIRICK. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL. 
By  G.  H.  TRAFTON,  State  Normal  School,  Mankato,  Minnesota. 

TEACHING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 
By  T.  J.  WOOPTBR,  University  of  Georgia. 

Secondary  Education 

THE  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

By  THOS.  H.  BRIGGS,  Columbia  University. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL. 
By  CHARLES  SWAIN  THOMAS. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 
By  ALEXANDER  INGLIS,  Harvard  University. 

PROBLEMS  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 
By  DAVID  SNEDDEN,  Columbia  University. 

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Practical  Aspects  of  Education 

A.NDRESS'S  Health  Education  in  Rural  Schools 

JHARTERS'S  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 

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LEAVITT  AND   BROWN'S  Prevocational  Education  in  the  Public 

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CABOT'S  Ethics  for  Children 
BROWN  LEE'S  Character  Building  in  School 
A  Course  in  Citizenship  and  Patriotism 
BLOOMFIELD'S  Youth,  School,  and  Vocation 
COLBY'S  Literature  and  Life  in  School 
The  Kindergarten 

FULMER'S  The  Use  of  the  Kindergarten  Gifts 
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Theory  and  Principles  of  Education 

DOOLEY'S  Principles  and  Methods  of  Industrial  Education 
BOBBITT'S  The  Curriculum 

McMuRRY's  (F.  M.)    How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study 
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An  Introductory  Survey  of  Ethics 

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live  it.     It  never  moralizes,  it  never  lays  down  obiter 
dicta,  it  simply  talks  over  with  us  our  personal  prob- 
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HOW  TO  STUDY 
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Professor  of  Elementary  Education,  Teachers  College 
Columbia  University 

Every  teacher,  student,  and  parent  should  read  this 
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Some  of  the  questions  which  are  fully  and  help- 
fully answered  in  the  book: 

Why  young  people  have  not  been  learning  to  study 
effectively. 

The  changes  necessary  to  be  made  in  the  schools  in 
order  that  they  may  learn  to  study  properly. 

How  the  large  amount  of  waste  in  home  study  can 
be  prevented. 

How  adults  should  study. 

To  what  extent  children  have  the  native  capacity  and 
experience  necessary  for  fruitful  study. 

What  can  be  done  towards  teaching  even  the  young- 
est children  to  form  the  right  habits  of  study. 

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VOCATIONAL  PREPARATION 

THE  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  OF  YOUTH 

By  Meyer  Bloomfield 
A  monograph  by  the  former  Director  of  the  Vocation  Bureau  of  Boston. 

YOUTH,  SCHOOL,  AND  VOCATION    By  Meyer  Bloomfield 

A  first-hand  presentation  of  the  meaning  and  work  of  the  vocational  guidance 
movement. 

CHOOSING   A  VOCATION  By  Frank  Parsons 

This  book  is  an  indispensable  manual  for  every  vocational  counselor. 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

By  David  Snedden 

The  author  is  the  Professor  of  Education,  Teachers  College,  and  one  of  the 
leaders  in  the  movement  for  the  closer  adaptation  of  public  schools  to  the  actual 
needs  of  youth. 

PREVOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

By  Frank  M.  Leavitt  and  Edith  Brown 

The  first  authoritative  book  to  tell  how  the  public  schools  may  prepare  pupils  to 
select  wisely  the  work  to  which  they  are  best  adapted. 

THE   PEOPLE'S   SCHOOL  By  Ruth  Mary  Weeks 

A  statement  regarding  the  vocational  training  movement  in  this  country  and 
abroad. 

VOCATIONS  FOR  GIRLS 

By  Mary  A.  Laselle  and  Katherine  Wiley 

Information  as  to  conditions  of  work  and  the  opportunities  in  the  more  common 
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THE    HOME    SCHOOL  By  Ada  Wilson  Trowbridge 

An  account  of  a  unique  and  successful  experiment  in  teaching  practical  house- 
hold economics. 

VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

By  David  Snedden,  Ruth  Mary  Weeks,  and  Ellwood  P.  Cubberley 

A  combination  of  three  volumes  from  the  Riverside  Educational  Monographs 
treating  different  phases  of  vocational  education, —  theory,  administration,  and 
practice.  , 

PRINCIPLES    AND    METHODS    OF    INDUSTRIAL 

EDUCATION  By  William  H.  Dooley 

This  is  a  book  for  use  in  teacher  training  classes.  There  is  an  Introduction  by 
Charles  A.  Prosser,  and  an  equipment  of  thought  stimulating  questions,  together 
with  reading  references  and  courses  of  study. 

INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  :  Its  Problems,  Methods, 

and    Dangers  By  Albert  H.  Leake 

A  study  and  criticism  of  the  opportunities  provided  for  the  education  of  the 
industrial  worker. 

ESTABLISHING  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS 

By  Harry  Bradley  Smith 
A  practical  discussion  of  the  steps  to  be  taken  in  establishing  industrial  schools. 

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Andress.  Health  Education  in  Rural  Schools 

Betts.  New  Ideals  in  Rural  Schools 

Belts.  The  Recitation 

Brownlee.  Character  Building  in  School 

Cabot.  Ethics  for  Children 

Cabot,  et  als.  A  Course  in  Citizenship  and  Pa- 
triotism 

Charters.  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 

Cubberley.  The  Improvement  of  Rural  Schools 

Cubberley.  Rural  Life  and  Education 

Earhart.  Types  of  Teaching 

Hoag  and  Terman.  Health  Work  in  the  Schools 

Kendall  and  Mirick.  How  to  Teach  the  Funda- 
mental Subjects 

Kendall  and  Mirick.  How  to  Teach  the  Special 
Subjects 

McMuriy.  How  to  Study 

Monroe.  Measuring  the  Results  of  Teaching 

Nolan.  The  Teaching  of  Agriculture 

Showalter.  Handbook  for  Rural  School  Officers 

Terman.  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child 

Webster.  Americanization  and  Citizenship 

"Wilson.  The  Motivation  of  School  Work 

Woodley.  The  Profession  of  Teaching 

Woofter.  Teaching  in  Rural  Schools 

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AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT 

GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS   IN   THE   UNITED 
STATES.     Revised  Edition. 

By  WILLIAM  B.  GUITTEAU,  Ph.D.,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Toledo, 
Ohio. 

This  book  fully  covers  the  problems  of  American  Democracy. 
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GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS  IN   THE  "UNITED 
STATES.    Briefer  Edition. 

By  WILLIAM  BACKUS  GUITTEAU. 

This  book  meets  the  requirements  of  high  schools  limiting  the 
work  in  civics  to  less  than  a  year. 

PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 

By  WILLIAM  BACKUS  GUITTEAU. 

This  is  an  admirable  textbook  for  the  upper  grammar  grades,  or 
for  the  first  year  of  the  high  school.  All  necessary  facts  regarding 
local,  state,  and  national  government  are  given,  with  the  main  em- 
phasis upon  the  practical  aspects  of  government. 

CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  IN   THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  JOHN  FISKE,  LL.D.     New  Edition,  with  additions  by  D.  S.  Sanford, 
Head  Master  of  the  Sanford  School,  Redding  Ridge,  Conn. 

AMERICAN  IDEALS. 

Edited  by  NORMAN  FOERSTER  and  W.  W.  PIERSON,  Jr.,  University  of 
North  Carolina. 

This  collection  of  representative  essays  and  addresses  of  our  most 
eminent  statesmen  and  men  of  letters  reveals  the  broad  foundations 
from  which  our  national  ideals  have  sprung. 

AMERICANIZATION  AND  CITIZENSHIP. 

By  HANSON  HART  WEBSTER. 

Important  and  distinctive  features  of  t'.iis  book  are: — (i)  the 
Catechism  upon  the  United  States  Constitution ;  (2)  the  statement  of 
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duties  and  privileges  of  citizens.  It  is  recommended  as  a  valuable 
handbook  for  all  Americans,  both  native  and  foreign-born. 


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